Tag anesthesiology

RECREATIONAL KETAMINE

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Street use of the anesthetic ketamine is on the rise. Kylie, a 28-year-old professional female, recently told me about her experience snorting recreational ketamine: “I was feeling anxious and I was feeling sad. My friend suggested I try snorting some ketamine crystals she had, and when I did . . . I had the best feeling of my life. The drug made me happier. It made the next hour a fun experience without any sadness, and when the high wore off an hour later my sadness was still gone. It was as if I’d been treated with some antidepressant drug, and the improvement in my mood was more lasting than the initial buzz. Now I see my future using ketamine as a periodic antidepressant. When you read about it on the internet, doctors are prescribing ketamine as a treatment for depression, but the whole medical clinic intravenous treatment is really expensive. It’s a lot easier to do it myself with ketamine I buy on the streets.”

Hmmm. We’re all aware of the dangers of recreational drug use with cocaine or methamphetamine or narcotics. We’re all aware of the dangers of recreational drugs laced with fentanyl, a powerful drug that can stop a person’s breathing and kill them in minutes. In this context, what kind of a threat is street ketamine?

 

KETAMINE AS AN ANESTHETIC

Ketamine is a powerful general anesthetic drug in an anesthesiologist’s toolbox. In 1962 Calvin Stevens, a professor of chemistry at Wayne State University, synthesized ketamine from phencyclidine (PCP), an animal tranquilizer/anesthetic also known as angel dust, with the desired goal of discovering a safer anesthetic with fewer hallucinogenic effects than PCP.

Anesthesiologists administer ketamine intravenously to produce general anesthesia without utilizing any anesthesia gas. We call ketamine a dissociative drug, because it can distort sensory perception and impart a feeling of detachment from oneself and the environment. The drug can produce bizarre and unpleasant nightmares, so anesthesiologists are trained to pair ketamine with an intravenous benzodiazepine such as Versed to temper ketamine’s potentially frightening dream world. Anesthesiologists are also trained to pair ketamine with an anticholinergic (mouth-drying) medication such as atropine or glycopyrrolate (Robinul), because ketamine can produce excessive salivating, which can lead to a patient choking on a rising tide of saliva.

For anesthesia usage, ketamine is a clear liquid with a concentration of 100 mg/ml or 50 mg/ml.

Because ketamine is an effective general anesthetic in one syringe, it’s included on the World Health Organization’s list of essential drugs.  For medical sedation, ketamine is typically diluted and administered intravenously in small boluses of 20 to 30 mg, and titrated to obtain the desired depth of anesthesia.  To induce general anesthesia, the intravenous dose is 1 – 4.5 mg/kg, or a mean dose of 2 mg/kg = 100 mg for a 50 kg adult. If it’s not possible to insert an IV line (e.g. if a patient is uncooperative, developmentally delayed, or is a child), a combination of 2 mg/kg of ketamine, 0.2 mg/kg of midazolam, and .02 mg/kg of atropine can be administered as an intramuscular injection into the deltoid muscle of the shoulder or the quadriceps muscle of the anterior thigh. To induce general anesthesia with intramuscular ketamine alone, dosing levels are higher than for intravenous use, for example the intramuscular dose is 6.5 – 13 mg/kg, or a mean dose of 10 mg/kg = 500 mg ketamine for a 50 kilogram adult.

How does medical ketamine affect a patient’s ABCs of airway, breathing, and circulation? Patients typically maintain an adequate airway and breathing during ketamine sedation and anesthesia, which is advantageous in short surgical procedures because this often eliminates the need for a breathing tube. Ketamine causes stimulation of the cardiovascular system, with the potential side effect of increasing blood pressure.

There is no reversal agent for ketamine. If an administered ketamine dose is excessive, a patient’s airway and breathing may become compromised, resulting in inadequate oxygen delivery to the lungs, heart, and brain. Patients who are obese, or who have obstructive sleep apnea, may lose their safe airway and breathing status during ketamine sedation. Ketamine can elevate blood pressure, so vigilant monitoring of the blood pressure is required, and acute treatment for hypertension may be necessary. Because of these risks, ketamine administration is typically limited to anesthesia professionals or physicians who are experts in the emergency management of airways and acute vital sign changes.

 

KETAMINE AS AN INTRAVENOUS ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUG

Multiple meta-analyses have concluded that IV ketamine is an effective rapid-acting antidepressant for major depressive disorders.  Ketamine was first reported to have antidepressant properties in the year 2000, when published data showed that an intravenous administration of a sub-anesthetic ketamine dose resulted in a reduction of symptoms in major depressive disorder (MDD). MDD is a common disorder with significant consequences. A 2012 epidemiological study of mental health in Canada showed the lifetime prevalence of major depressive disorder was 3.9%. The prevalence was higher in women and in younger age groups. Ketamine is a treatment option for patients suffering from treatment-resistant depression (TRD). IV ketamine can exert rapid antidepressant effects as early as several hours after administration. In contrast, traditional oral antidepressant pills usually require several weeks of therapy for a clinical response. Ketamine has a unique mechanism of action on the central nervous system, at the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and AMPA (𝛼-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid) receptors, rather than at the serotonin and/or noradrenaline neurotransmitters that are the sites of action for traditional antidepressant pills such as Prozac, Paxil, or Zoloft.

Intravenous ketamine clinics are typically supervised by an attending anesthesiologist whose is present is to ensure the safe management of airway, breathing, and circulation during these brief sedation anesthetics. Intravenous ketamine administered in a clinic setting can result in adverse effects during the infusion period and immediately afterward, including nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, dissociation, or an increase in blood pressure.Typically an infusion of 0.5 mg/kg of ketamine (e.g. 40 mg for an 80 kg patient) is administered slowly over 40 – 60 minutes. The patient will remain onsite in a recovery room until the sedative effects have cleared. Patients report positive antidepressant effects within two hours, and these effects last for one to two weeks. Data demonstrate a positive response rate of 44% after six intravenous ketamine treatments in patients with treatment-resistant depression.  A series of anesthetics will cost significantly more than one Prozac pill per day, so the use of ketamine as an antidepressant is directed at treatment-resistant depression.

 

KETAMINE AS AN INTRANASAL ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUG

In 2019 the FDA approved a nasal spray called Spravato (active ingredient esketamine) for major depression that failed treatment with two or more oral antidepressants.

Per the Spravato website:

SPRAVATO® is a non-competitive N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist indicated, in conjunction with oral antidepressant, for the treatment of:  treatment-resistant depression in adults, depressive symptoms in adults with major depressive disorder (MDD) with acute suicidal ideation or behavior.

SPRAVATO® is intended for use only in a certified healthcare setting.

SPRAVATO® is intended for patient administration under the direct observation of a healthcare provider, and patients are required to be monitored by a healthcare provider for at least 2 hours. SPRAVATO® must never be dispensed directly to a patient for home use. 

 

 

The advantage of intranasal ketamine is that it does not require an IV, and it requires monitoring by a healthcare provider but does not require an anesthesiologist to supervise its administration.

 

KETAMINE AS A RECREATIONAL DRUG

To supply the illicit street market, diverted pharmaceutical liquid ketamine is evaporated from its liquid solution into a powdered form.

How popular is recreational ketamine? The number of ketamine seizures by federal, state and local law enforcement in the United States increased from 55 in 2017 to 247 in 2022. The total weight of ketamine confiscated increased by more than 1,000 percent over the five years. The majority of the confiscated ketamine was in powder form. According to the DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency), powdered ketamine is typically packaged in “small glass vials, small plastic bags, and capsules as well as paper, glassine, or aluminum foil folds. . . . powdered ketamine is cut into lines known as bumps and snorted, or it is smoked, typically in marijuana or tobacco cigarettes. . . . Ketamine is found by itself or often in combination with MDMA, amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine. . . . Ketamine produces hallucinations. It distorts perceptions of sight and sound and makes the user feel disconnected and not in control. A ‘Special K’ trip is touted as better than that of LSD or PCP because its hallucinatory effects are relatively short in duration, lasting approximately 30 to 60 minutes as opposed to several hours. . . . An overdose can cause unconsciousness and dangerously slowed breathing.” (bold lettering mine.)

Recreational users call the phenomenon of a deep ketamine high as a “K-hole.” Falling into a K-hole means the drug user is temporarily unable to interact with others or the world around them. Some people refer to a K-hole as an out-of-body or near-death experience. The effects of long-term use of dissociative drugs such as ketamine haven’t been exhaustively studied, but ketamine use is thought to be reinforcing, meaning that individuals find the ketamine high an experience they wish to repeat. Repeated ketamine usage likely leads to some degree of tolerance and physical dependence.

The website The Cut states that “most of the recreational users . . . take K in very small doses, seeking a pleasant buzz that wears off within 30 minutes or can be re-upped as needed. It’s often taken to compliment other drugs — a garnish instead of the main course. For a generation that has less free time for sprawling multi-day psychedelic trips, ketamine has an appealing choose-your-own-adventure quality. . . . Claire says it actually feels like a healthier and more mature lifestyle. ‘People are like: I used to go out and have 16 drinks and do a bunch of cocaine and feel like shit the next day. And then it was this total shift [to ketamine]: Oh, yeah, I can do this. And it still feels like stepping out of my life, but I also feel fine tomorrow.’ At this point, she says: ‘I wouldn’t say that it’s different than like, a bunch of people getting off work and going out for drinks.’”

 

KETAMINE AS A RECREATIONAL ANTIDEPRESSANT?

Can a layperson use ketamine recreationally to treat themself for depression? The specter of self-treatment reminds one of the saying that a physician who treats himself has a fool for a doctor and a fool for a patient. A corollary of this is: a person who treats his or her mood disorder with recreational ketamine has a fool for a caretaker and a fool for a patient.

Kylie will attempt to titrate ketamine recreationally to treat her depression. But a precise, tailored medical dose is required for patients to experience optimal benefit from ketamine with safety. Individuals who self-administer ketamine expose themselves to serious health risks. Ketamine may make their symptoms worse, or they may even die from the habit. Kylie has no plans to have a healthcare provider present when she self-administers ketamine. Kylie has no idea of the milligram dose she is snorting. Her ketamine is not FDA-approved, and may in fact contain fentanyl at a dose that could cease her breathing and kill her.

How dangerous is ketamine? A meta-analysis of the published medical literature showed a total of 312 overdose cases and 138 deaths from recreational ketamine. There were no cases of overdose or death related to the use of ketamine as an antidepressant in a therapeutic setting. Street ketamine may seem cheaper, as the cost of ketamine on the street is approximately $100 per gram (1000 mg), and a single dose is approximately 100 mg. Medical treatment with 50 mg IV ketamine costs approximately $400-$800 per treatment. But ketamine administered by anesthesiologists in a clinic is safe, while there are legitimate respiratory and cardiac risks involved in the recreational use of ketamine.

If Kylie is depressed and seeks relief, an appropriate action would be to consult a psychiatrist. The alternative of intermittent recreational intranasal ketamine as a self-administered treatment for her depression is a dangerous detour.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

THE TOP 10 ANESTHESIA JOURNALS

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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This column will help you find the top 10 anesthesia journals. Prior to the internet, hard copies of medical journals were bound into volumes and stored at hospital or medical school libraries. To find a specific article required a dive into the archives of the library, with the eventual reward of finding the specific article and then photocopying it to use for your pending lecture, paper, or patient care. In the internet age, all journals are catalogued in the virtual library of the search engine PubMed.  Once you find your desired article, the abstract or sometimes the full text article is available for you to read and/or copy into your personal computer.

With this virtual library model, it makes little sense for individual clinicians to subscribe to monthly journals. Your search for journal references is done via Google or PubMed. Which journals are accessed most often? Traditional academic rankings of journals rely on the “impact factor” of each journal.

Impact factor is defined as the “scientometric index which reflects the yearly mean number of citations of the articles published in the last two years in that journal.” One such impact factor ranking list is located here.  The impact factor/rate of citations is different from the number of clicks an article receives on internet searches. How many people actually read an article? There is currently no ranking system to quantitate the important metric of internet clicks, which would document the degree of interest readers have with a specific article or journal.

Clinical anesthesia providers such as myself want to read information which impacts patient care, rather than to read basic science studies such as this one:  Pholcodine exposure increases the risk of perioperative anaphylaxis to neuromuscular blocking agents: the ALPHO case-control study. Which journals/publications contain the most valuable clinical information? There are multiple fine journals in our specialty, but in my opinion the top 10 periodical anesthesia publications for clinical information follow below. Note that 2 of the top 4 publications did not even exist when I began my anesthesia training in 1984.

THE 2023 ANESTHESIACONSULTANT.COM LIST OF THE TOP 10 ANESTHESIA PUBLICATIONS:

TEN: Journal of Clinical Anesthesia.  Per their website, this journal “addresses all aspects of anesthesia practice, including anesthetic administration, pharmacokinetics, preoperative and postoperative considerations, coexisting disease and other complicating factors, cost issues, and similar concerns anesthesiologists contend with daily. . . . JCA is affiliated with three societies that make it their official journal: the American Association of Clinical Directors (AACD); the Society for Airway Management (SAM); and the Orthopedic Anesthesia Pain Rehabilitation Society (OAPRS).” This publication launched in 1988. Comment: The Journal of Clinical Anesthesia is best known for presenting clinical data regarding relevant questions in the practice of anesthesiology.

NINE: European Journal of Anaesthesiology. Per their website, “The European Journal of Anaesthesiology is the official journal of the European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care (ESAIC), and all members receive the journal as a benefit of membership.” This publication launched in 1983. Comment: As the flagship publication for the European Society, this journal is a reliable source of recent relevant anesthesia studies.

EIGHT: Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine.  Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine. Per their website, this journal is “the official publication of the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine(ASRA), a monthly scientific journal dedicated to mitigating the global burden of pain. Coverage includes all aspects of acute, perioperative, transitional, and chronic pain medicine. . . . this respected journal also serves as the official publication of the European Society of Regional Anaesthesia and Pain Therapy (ESRA), the Asian and Oceanic Society of Regional Anesthesia (AOSRA), the Latin American Society of Regional Anesthesia (LASRA), and the African Society for Regional Anesthesia (AFSRA).” This journal launched in 1976. Comment: The diagnosis and treatment of pain is the greatest frontier in the specialty of anesthesiology in the 21st century. Look to Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine as the leading journal in this vital subspecialty of anesthesiology.

 

SEVEN: Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia.  Per their website, this journal “is primarily aimed at anesthesiologists who deal with patients undergoing cardiac, thoracic or vascular surgical procedures. JCVA features a multidisciplinary approach, with contributions from cardiac, vascular and thoracic surgeons, cardiologists, and other related specialists.” This journal launched in 1987. Comment: The practices of cardiac, thoracic, and vascular anesthesia are the most demanding in our profession, and the Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia is the leader in reporting advances in these challenging subspecialties.

SIX: British Journal of Anaesthesia.  Per their website, this journal “publishes high-impact original work in all branches of anaesthesia, critical care medicine, pain medicine and perioperative medicine. . . . The journal is proudly affiliated with The Royal College of Anaesthetists, The College of Anaesthesiologists of Ireland, and The Hong Kong College of Anaesthesiologists.” This publication launched in 1923. Comment: This British journal is the second longest running publication of the ten in this list, and is a very well-known and well-respected journal in our profession.

FIVE: Anaesthesia.  Per their website, this journal “is the official journal of the Association of Anaesthetists and is international in scope and comprehensive in coverage. It publishes original, peer-reviewed articles on all aspects of general and regional anaesthesia, intensive care and pain therapy.” This publication launched in 1930. Comment: This British journal is the third longest running publication of the ten in this list, and is a well-known and well-respected journal in our profession.

FOUR: The ASA Monitor.  Per their website, this is “the official news publication of the American Society of Anesthesiologists. The ASA Monitor delivers the latest specialty and industry news, and practice-changing clinical information to the perioperative health care community.” This publication launched in 2004. Comment: The ASA Monitor byline is “The Leading Source for Perioperative Health Care News.”  The ASA Monitor is essentially a monthly newspaper which reports on pertinent topics regarding anesthesiology in the United States. It’s delivered to all members of the American Society of Anesthesiologists.

 

THREE: The Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation (APSF) Newsletter.  Per their website, this publication’s  mission is “to improve the safety of patients during anesthesia care by: Identifying safety initiatives and creating recommendations to implement directly and with partner organizations, being a leading voice for anesthesia patient safety worldwide, and supporting and advancing anesthesia patient safety culture, knowledge, and learning. The APSF Vision Statement is ‘That no one shall be harmed by anesthesia care.’” This publication launched in 1986. Comment: The Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation Newsletter is the Quality Improvement/Quality Assurance publication for our profession. The editors ferret out current problems in anesthesiology and provide solutions in an attempt to lessen or eliminate complications in the future. The APSF Newsletter should be required reading for all anesthesia professionals in order to best protect our patients.

TWO: ANESTHESIA & ANALGESIA.   Per their website, “ANESTHESIA & ANALGESIA is the ‘The Global Standard in Anesthesiology,’ and provides the practice-oriented, clinical research you need to keep current and provide optimal care to your patients. Each monthly issue brings you peer reviewed articles on the latest advances in drugs, preoperative preparation, patient monitoring, pain management, pathophysiology, and many other timely topics. . . . ANESTHESIA & ANALGESIA is the official journal of the International Anesthesia Research Society and all members receive the journal as a benefit of membership.” This publication launched in 1922. Comment: A & A (as this journal is referred to in our profession) is an outstanding publication, second only to Anesthesiology.

ONE: ANESTHESIOLOGY. Per their website, “ANESTHESIOLOGY leads the world in publishing and disseminating the highest quality work to inform daily clinical practice and transform the practice of medicine in the specialty. . . . Founded in 1940, ANESTHESIOLOGY is the official journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists but operates with complete editorial autonomy, with an independent and internationally recognized Editorial Board.” Comment: Anesthesiology is the blueprint for what a 21st century journal should  be, mixing breakthrough science and clinical studies with the all-important American Society of Anesthesiologist standards, guidelines, and practice parameters which define our profession.

My advice? Be intellectually curious about all things related to anesthesiology. Use PubMed and Google to look up questions you want answered. You’ll be directed to many of the publications above, and you’ll be a smarter clinician as a result.

In addition:  There are dozens of anesthesia textbooks. I’ve ranked the Top 11 Anesthesia Textbooks in a previous column.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

CHATGPT AND ANESTHESIA

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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In 1997 the IBM computer Deep Blue beat world chess champion Gary Kasparov head to head.  Is it feasible that CHATGPT, this decades artificial intelligence wunderkind, can equal or better a physician anesthesiologist? I entered three anesthesia consultations into CHATGPT, one preoperative, one intraoperative, and one postoperative. Is CHATGPT as good as an MD? Let’s look at what the computer answered:

PREOPERATIVE QUESTION

An 80-year-old woman with congestive heart failure gets short of breath walking up one flight of stairs. She needs to have her gallbladder removed. What sort of preoperative tests or therapies should this patient have before surgery?

 

CHATGPT: For an 80-year-old woman with congestive heart failure (CHF) who needs to undergo gallbladder removal surgery, it is essential to conduct a thorough preoperative evaluation to assess her overall health status and identify any potential risks. The specific evaluation required may vary depending on the patient’s medical history, the severity of the CHF, and the recommendations of the healthcare team involved. However, here are some general aspects that may be considered:

  1. Cardiac Evaluation: Given the patient’s CHF and symptoms of shortness of breath, it’s important to assess her cardiac function comprehensively. This may involve an electrocardiogram (ECG) to evaluate heart rhythm, an echocardiogram to assess heart structure and function, and possibly additional tests such as stress testing or cardiac catheterization, depending on the severity of her symptoms and the presence of any known cardiac conditions.
  2. Pulmonary Evaluation: Since the patient experiences shortness of breath, it may be necessary to evaluate her lung function. Pulmonary function tests, such as spirometry, may be conducted to assess lung capacity and function.
  3. Lab Tests: Routine blood tests may be performed to assess the patient’s overall health and check for any abnormalities that could impact surgery. This may include a complete blood count (CBC), comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), coagulation profile, and other specific tests as deemed necessary.
  4. Imaging Studies: Depending on the patient’s medical history and symptoms, imaging studies like an abdominal ultrasound or a computed tomography (CT) scan may be ordered to confirm the diagnosis of gallbladder disease and assess its severity.
  5. Medication Review: A review of the patient’s current medications, including those used to manage her CHF, is crucial to ensure they are optimized for the surgery. Medications may need to be adjusted or temporarily stopped to minimize potential risks during the procedure.
  6. Anesthesia Evaluation: An evaluation by an anesthesiologist is important to assess the patient’s readiness for anesthesia and determine the most appropriate anesthesia plan for her, taking into account her cardiac condition and any other medical considerations.

It’s important to note that this is a general outline, and the specific preoperative evaluation for the patient should be determined by her healthcare team, including her primary care physician, surgeon, cardiologist, and anesthesiologist. They will consider her individual medical history and unique circumstances to ensure a safe and successful surgery.

 

INTRAOPERATIVE DECISION

A 60-year-old man with a history of hypertension is having a knee arthroscopy surgery under general anesthesia. In the middle of the anesthetic, his heart rate drops to 20 beats per minute, his blood pressure drops to unmeasurable, and he no longer has peripheral pulses. What do you think is going wrong, and what should be done do to save this man?

CHATGPT: I’m not a doctor, but the symptoms you described during the anesthetic suggest a severe and potentially life-threatening condition. This could indicate a cardiac event or a complication related to the anesthesia. One possible explanation for the sudden drop in heart rate, blood pressure, and loss of peripheral pulses is a condition called “bradycardia with hypotension” or “bradycardia-induced hypotension.”

In this situation, it’s crucial for the medical professionals involved to take immediate action. Here are some general steps that might be considered:

  1. Alert the medical team: The anesthesiologist or healthcare providers in the operating room need to be notified immediately about the patient’s deteriorating condition. The surgeon and additional medical personnel may also be called upon for assistance.
  2. Assess the airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs): Ensure that the patient’s airway is clear and breathing is supported. Provide supplemental oxygen if necessary. Assess circulation and check for the presence of a pulse. If the patient is unresponsive or there is no pulse, initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) immediately.
  3. Notify the code team: If the patient remains unresponsive and pulseless, it may be necessary to activate a “code blue” or similar emergency response to involve a specialized team experienced in resuscitation procedures.
  4. Perform advanced cardiac life support (ACLS): Healthcare providers trained in ACLS protocols will initiate resuscitation measures, including chest compressions, defibrillation (if indicated for certain types of cardiac rhythms), and administration of medications such as epinephrine to help restore circulation.
  5. Identify and address potential causes: Once the patient’s vital signs have stabilized or as the resuscitation efforts continue, the medical team will work to identify the underlying cause of the cardiac event. This may involve evaluating the patient’s medical history, reviewing medications, and conducting further diagnostic tests such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) or blood tests.

It’s important to note that the above steps are general guidelines and the specific actions taken may vary depending on the patient’s condition, the resources available, and the expertise of the medical team on-site. In such a critical situation, the immediate focus will be on stabilizing the patient and providing appropriate resuscitation efforts to restore circulation and address any life-threatening issues.

 

POST ANESTHESIA EMERGENCY

In the recovery room after a tonsillectomy, a 5-year-old child coughs up blood, becomes short of breath, and becomes unconscious. What is probably going on, and what should be done to save this child?

CHATGPT: I’m not a doctor, but the symptoms you described following a tonsillectomy can be indicative of a serious complication known as postoperative hemorrhage. In this situation, it’s crucial to seek immediate medical attention. Here are some general steps that might be considered:

  1. Activate the emergency response: Alert the medical staff immediately about the child’s deteriorating condition. Nurses and physicians in the recovery room should be notified, and additional assistance may be needed, such as calling a code or emergency response team.
  2. Ensure a patent airway and support breathing: Assess the child’s airway and breathing. If the child is experiencing difficulty breathing or is unresponsive, the healthcare providers should take steps to establish and maintain a clear airway. They may administer oxygen and provide respiratory support if necessary.
  3. Control bleeding: Postoperative hemorrhage can cause significant blood loss, leading to the symptoms you described. The doctors should perform a thorough examination to identify the source of bleeding and take appropriate measures to control it. This may involve suctioning the blood from the child’s mouth, using medications to constrict blood vessels (such as topical epinephrine), or applying direct pressure to the bleeding site.
  4. Administer fluids and blood products: If the child is experiencing significant blood loss, intravenous fluids and blood products may be necessary to stabilize their condition and restore blood volume.
  5. Provide immediate resuscitation measures: If the child becomes unconscious or experiences cardiac arrest, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be initiated immediately. Healthcare providers trained in pediatric resuscitation will perform chest compressions, provide assisted ventilation, and administer medications as required.
  6. Prepare for surgical intervention: Depending on the severity of the bleeding and the child’s condition, emergency surgical intervention may be necessary to control the bleeding. The surgical team will be assembled, and the child will be transferred to the operating room for further assessment and management.

It’s important to note that the above steps are general guidelines, and the specific actions taken may vary depending on the child’s condition, the resources available, and the expertise of the medical team on-site. In such a critical situation, the immediate focus will be on stabilizing the child, controlling the bleeding, and providing any necessary resuscitation efforts.

 

ANALYSIS: 

Note that CHATGPT preceded two of its three answers with the words, “I’m not a doctor, but,” which likely removes the possibility that CHATGPT creator OpenAI will be sued for medical malpractice. From the answers above, I’ll attest that if you’re an inexperienced anesthesiologist or certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) working alone, there is value having a resource like CHATGPT immediately available. Are there any notable errors in the CHATGPT answers? No, not really. As a written reply to the questions posed, the artificial intelligence of CHATGPT gives a reasonable outline regarding how to proceed.

Anesthesia is an acute care specialty, and often there will be no time to consult CHATGPT regarding what to do next because the patient is trying to die right in front of you, for example in the second and third scenarios above. Expect artificial intelligence in medicine to be most applicable in specialties like radiology, pathology, and dermatology, where digital images are analyzed. In radiology, this would be the evaluation of digital X-rays, MRIs, or CT scans. In pathology, this would be the evaluations of digital images of microscopic biopsies, and in dermatology, this would be the evaluation of digital images of skin lesion photographs. The model for the machine learning of digital images will be similar to the process in which a human child learns. When a child sees an animal, his parents tell him that animal is a dog. After repeated exposures the child learns what a dog looks like. Early on the child may be fooled into thinking that a wolf is a dog, but with increasing experience the child can discern with almost perfect accuracy what is or is not a dog.

CHATGPT relays information developed by algorithms. Is the practice of medicine destined to be directed by computer algorithms? Yes. We’re already guided by algorithms/cognitive aides such as the decision trees of Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) or the Stanford Emergency Manual. These flow charts are useful to direct acute care, and to assure no aspect of emergency treatment is overlooked. Expanded use of algorithms is inevitable as more data is accumulated on the management of large populations of medical patients. Current electronic medical records (EMR) systems exist in every hospital, and the EMRs are generating the sort of Big Data that algorithms will be built on.

I’ve had an interest in AI and robots in medicine for years. All Things That Matter Press published my novel Doctor Vita in 2019, several years before CHAPGPT became reality. Doctor Vita described the introduction of artificial intelligence in medicine machines in a Silicon Valley university hospital. A significant and anticipated advance in Doctor Vita is the ability to interact with patients and doctors by voice input and auditory output. In short, the artificial intelligence in medicine of the future will converse with us, just as Alexa and Siri already do.

The World Health Organization projects there will be a shortage of ten million healthcare workers worldwide by the year 2030. Contemplate the following:

  1. All medical knowledge is available on the Internet. Doctors don’t know everything or remember everything, so we routinely look up facts, evidence, and data on the Internet. A computer can recall all of these facts.
  2. Most every medical diagnosis and treatment can eventually be written as a decision tree algorithm;
  3. Voice interaction software is excellent and improving every year;
  4. The physical exam is of less diagnostic importance than scans and lab tests which can be digitalized; and
  5. A computer is far cheaper than the seven-year post-college education required to train a physician.

Will artificial intelligence assist MDs or replace MDs?Replacement of medical personnel with computers will not be welcomed by patients, doctors, or nurses, but there’s a need for cheaper healthcare, and the concept of automating physician tasks is no longer the domain of science fiction. It’s inevitable that AI will change current medical practice. A bold prediction: AI will change medicine more than any development since the invention of anesthesia in 1849.

 

Will the evolution of artificial intelligence in medicine lead to improved healthcare outcomes? In 2018 and 2019 autopilots drove two Boeing 737 Max airplanes to crashes despite the best efforts of human pilots to correct their course. Eleven people were killed in crashes involving vehicles using automated driving systems in the United States during a four-month period in 2022. Will we see improved outcomes or worsening outcomes when AI intersects with medicine, and machines are directing medical care? We don’t know yet. In the spirit of Jules Verne, this century’s trip around the world, to the center of the earth, to the moon, or beneath the ocean’s surface, will be the coming of artificial intelligence in medicine.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

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MY ANESTHESIOLOGIST ADMINISTERED FENTANYL TO ME. IS THAT OK?

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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America is in the midst of a fentanyl crisis. There were 71,238 fentanyl overdose deaths in the United States in 2021. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) states, “fentanyl is involved in more deaths of Americans under 50 than any cause of death, including heart disease, cancer, homicide, suicide and other accidents.”

Despite this, during surgery your anesthesiologist injected fentanyl into your IV as part of your anesthetic. Is that safe?

Yes.

As a street drug, fentanyl overdose is a critical problem in the United States, but anesthesiologists administer fentanyl to most patients, and do so safely. I review charts from all regions of the U.S., and virtually every anesthetic includes the safe use of fentanyl. Fentanyl was introduced in the 1960s when it was first patented under the brand name Sublimaze, and fentanyl quickly became the most commonly administered narcotic by anesthesia providers. In operating room anesthesia, the narcotic fentanyl is a clear liquid usually marketed in vials of two milliliters or five milliliters.

Why do anesthesiologists utilize fentanyl? Most surgeries cause pain, and our pharmaceutical options for relieving pain include local anesthetics, anesthesia gases,  or narcotics. When possible, we advocate for the injection of local anesthetics by the surgeon or the anesthesiologist to block postoperative pain. Local anesthetics include lidocaine, bupivacaine (also known as Marcaine), or ropivacaine. In addition, most general anesthetics include a potent inhaled anesthesia gas such as sevoflurane. Sevoflurane vapor maintains unconsciousness, blocks memory, and renders a patient pain-free, but when the surgery concludes, the anesthesia gases are turned off so that the patient will awaken. As the anesthesia gas is exhaled, a patient becomes progressively more alert, and will eventually be awake enough to feel surgical pain. The intravenous injection of a narcotic medication such as fentanyl is a common antidote to postoperative pain.

Narcotics relieve pain, but also have the undesirable side effects of respiratory depression, sedation, nausea, and constipation. Narcotics available to an anesthesiologist include morphine, Demerol, Dilaudid, or fentanyl. We commonly administer fentanyl because it has a rapid onset and rapid offset of its effect when compared to the other three drugs. The onset of action of intravenous fentanyl is less than 60 seconds. Its peak effect is at 2–5 minutes, with a half-life of 90 minutes and a duration of action of 30–60 minutes. In contrast, intravenous morphine has a slower peak effect at 5–15 minutes, with a longer half-life of 1.5–2 hours, and a longer duration of action of 3–4 hours. Because the peak effect of morphine, Demerol, or Dilaudid does not occur as rapidly as fentanyl, titrating the intravenous loading of morphine, Demerol, or Dilaudid is a slower process. Fentanyl’s rapid onset of narcotic effect is desirable because anesthesia providers quickly know whether an additional dose is necessary to achieve the titrated level of pain relief we seek. We can administer an IV dose of fentanyl every five minutes, waiting only those five minutes to evaluate how effective the preceding dose was.

Respiratory Depression:

The most serious side effect of intravenous fentanyl in anesthesia usage is the same side effect that makes street fentanyl dangerous, and that’s the side effect of respiratory depression. In layman’s terms, an excessive dose of fentanyl quickly causes a patient to stop breathing. The medical term for cessation of breathing is apnea. In an anesthesiologist’s hands, apnea is easily handled because we are skilled at ventilating oxygen into a patient’s lungs safely via a mask or an airway tube.

Street overdoses of fentanyl are best treated with naloxone (brand name Narcan). Nasal Narcan is now approved for over the counter (OTC) sale in the United States. In a medical setting, intravenous Narcan is injected to reverse a narcotic overdose. Injection of one ampule of Narcan (0.4 mg) will completely reverse narcotic apnea and unconsciousness in an overdosed patient in less than a minute.

The protocol for treating an emergency room patient who is unconscious on admission for unknown reasons includes an empirical intravenous injection of Narcan. If the patient’s coma was caused by any narcotic overdose, the patient will awaken within seconds.

Fentanyl is one hundred times more potent than morphine.  Medical fentanyl doses are prescribed in micrograms, while morphine is prescribed in milligrams. One microgram is only 1/1000 of a milligram. A narcotic as potent as fentanyl is typically only utilized by MDs expert at handling apneic patients, and the IV antidote Narcan is always immediately available. Most medical doctors other than anesthesiologists never prescribe intravenous fentanyl. Your general practitioner or primary care doctor will never prescribe fentanyl. A cardiologist may prescribe IV fentanyl sedation for a procedure such as a cardiac catheterization, or a or surgeon may prescribe fentanyl for a superficial excision surgery, but anesthesiologists are typically the only physicians who pick up a fentanyl ampule, insert a needle and syringe into the ampule, and then inject the drug into a patient’s IV. In the intensive care unit (ICU), fentanyl can be used to sedate patients who already have a breathing tube (endotracheal tube) in their windpipe, and who are on a mechanical ventilator. An ICU physician will write an order for the dosing of intravenous fentanyl, and the ICU nurse will be in constant attendance to monitor the patient’s vital signs and level of sedation.

Addiction:

Are you at risk for becoming an addict because your anesthesiologist gives you doses of intravenous fentanyl? No. Most patients have no idea they received IV fentanyl as part of their anesthetic care. The effects of fentanyl wear off within several hours after the end of the surgery, and there is no data that a patient will have a craving for additional fentanyl. After surgery, hospital inpatients who have postoperative pain are typically treated with longer acting narcotics such as morphine or Dilaudid. After surgery, outpatients who have postoperative pain are typically treated with narcotic pain pills such as Oxycontin or Norco. There is no pill form of fentanyl that a patient goes home with, or that a patient can overdose with.

Note that in medical settings, fentanyl can be given by means other than IV injection:

FENTANYL PATCH

Can medical fentanyl be stolen, find its way to the streets, and be a cause of overdose deaths of non-medical people? No. The DEA forces all hospitals, surgery centers, and medical offices to keep a strict tally of all narcotics and controlled substances. At the end of every day, a precise count of all ampules of fentanyl is done, and unless one of the doctors or nurses falsifies their count, it is unlikely any fentanyl escapes a medical facility and winds up in the hands of dealers, addicts, or individuals in the outside world.

Conclusion:

It’s true that medically administered intravenous fentanyl can cause a person to stop breathing, but if an anesthesiologist is present watching every breath, you’re safe. When an airway specialist is present and fentanyl is administered in a hospital operating room, an emergency room, an ambulatory surgery center, or a physician’s office operating room, this represents safe care in the United States today. Don’t worry if you hear your anesthesia provider is going to give you fentanyl. It’s OK. Medical administration of fentanyl has been going since the 1960s. Deaths from fentanyl overdose in a medical setting would be almost unheard of.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

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INCREASED DOLLAR COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFICULT INTUBATION

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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The safe management of a difficult airway is the most important single skill for an anesthesiologist. Every critically ill patient is managed by the priority of A – B – C, or Airway – Breathing – Circulation. Just as the initial most important factors in real estate are location, location, location, the three initial important factors in a critically ill patient are airway, airway, airway. I’ve written previously on the American Society of Anesthesiologists 2022 modifications to their Difficult Airway Algorithm, on the importance of expert airway management, and on advice for avoiding lost airway lawsuits, but I haven’t discussed the economic consequences of each difficult airway patient.

A 2021 publication, “Factors and Economic Outcomes Associated with Documented Difficult Intubation in the United States,”  by Moucharite et al, studied the economic cost of a difficult intubation in hospitalized patients. Using data from the Premier Healthcare Database, the study looked at adult patients with inpatient surgical admissions during 2016, 2017, and 2018. Patients in the difficult intubation group had average inpatient costs $14,468 higher than patients without difficult intubations. Patients in the difficult intubation group had average ICU (intensive care unit) costs $4,029 higher than patients without difficult intubations. For difficult intubation patients the mean hospital length of stay was 3.8 days longer and ICU length of stay was 2.0 days longer. All data were significant to a p value of < 0.0001.

In California where I practice, these numbers would be significantly higher. The mean cost of a single hospital day in California is $4181, and the mean cost of an ICU day is significantly higher.

The Moucharite study was a large retrospective review of 2,233,751 cases from hospitals in all parts of the United States. With 609 cases in the difficult intubation group and 2,233,142 cases in the non-difficult intubation group, the incidence of difficult intubation was only 0.027%. Difficult intubation patients were more likely be male, black, less than 65 years old, and have urgent or emergent admissions, obesity, cancer, congestive heart failure, COPD, renal disease, and had been treated in a teaching hospital or a hospital of 500 beds or more.

Moucharite wrote, “Difficult intubation has been associated with a variety of complications including oxygen desaturation, hypertension, dental damage, admission to the intensive care unit, and complications at extubation, as well as arrhythmias, bronchospasm, airway trauma, CICV (can’t intubate, can’t ventilate), and sequela of hypoxia (cardiac arrest, brain damage, and death). This was consistent with a 2011 study of difficult airways from the British Journal of Anesthesia which stated, “Obesity markedly increases risk of airway complications. Pulmonary aspiration remains the leading cause of airway-related anesthetic deaths. . . . Unrecognized esophageal intubation is not of only historical interest and is entirely avoidable. . . . prediction scores are rather poor, so many failures are unanticipated . . . the first-pass success rate of intubation in the operating room ranges from only 63% to 85% . . . and up to 93% of difficult intubations are unanticipated.”

The Moucharite study has limitations. It’s a retrospective study of economic Big Data, and there is no direct evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship between a difficult intubation and a more costly hospitalization. The study does not include data from electronic medical records, so we have no knowledge on all the comorbidities and complications of the difficult intubation patients. The study included only hospitalized patients, even though seventy percent of surgical procedures in the United States take place in ambulatory surgery centers and offices outside of hospitals. The reported incidence of difficult intubation  is estimated to be 1.5–8.5% of the general population, but in  the Moucharite study only 0.027% of patients were found to have difficult intubation. This discrepancy implies some patients in the Moucharite study were difficult intubations but may have been assigned to the non-difficult intubation cohort.

Note that all three authors of the Moucharite study are employees of Medtronic, a medical device company which manufactures the McGrath videolaryngoscope.

McGRATH VIDEOLARYNGOSCOPE

I expect Medtronic could cite the Moucharite study as evidence that a videolaryngoscope (such as a McGrath) is a crucial piece of equipment for avoiding expensive difficult intubation outcomes. Moucharite wrote that there is, “a need for clinicians who perform tracheal intubations to carefully consider options . . . several studies demonstrated the benefits of videolaryngoscopy [emphasis added] including a shorter time required for tracheal intubation, a higher rate of successful intubations.”

For the first look when intubating a patient, most anesthesia providers still use a traditional direct laryngoscope:

MAC 3 DIRECT LARYNGOSCOPE

 

If the direct laryngoscope does not enable a successful intubation, a reasonable second step is to switch to a videolaryngoscope such as the GlideScope, manufactured by Verathon:

GLIDESCOPE

or the C-MAC, manufactured by Karl Storz:

C-MAC

 

or the McGrath, manufactured by Medtronic:

McGRATH VIDEOLARYNGOSCOPE

 

In my experience the larger 6.4-inch screen on a GlideScope or the 5.9-inch screen on a C-MAC makes them superior videolaryngoscopes to the McGrath with its diminutive 2.5-inch screen.

Why use a direct laryngoscope in the initial intubation attempt rather than use a videolaryngoscope? A direct laryngoscope costs less than a videolaryngoscope. Most direct laryngoscopes blades are washed and reused. Videolaryngoscopes require a new disposable sleeve or blade for every case. In facilities with budget concerns, replacing all traditional laryngoscopes with videolaryngoscopes would be expensive. A McGrath costs about $2500 on eBay, and each new nonreusable blade cover costs about $10. A new GlideScope was $12,745 in 2017. A reconditioned GlideScope costs between $1000 and $10,000 on eBay, and each new nonreusable blade costs $38.

A 2022 study comparing direct laryngoscopy to videolaryngoscopy concluded that “videolaryngoscopy likely provides a safer risk profile compared to direct laryngoscopy for all adults undergoing tracheal intubation.” A recent review  stated that, “Though videolaryngoscopes have been recommended for use at first attempt of intubation by most international airway guidelines, the universal use of videolaryngoscopes is still facing hurdles because of limited training opportunities, availability and high cost.”

Should a videolaryngoscope replace a direct laryngoscope for all initial intubation attempts? I don’t think so. The majority of intubations are straightforward and are successful with a Miller 2 or a Mac 3 direct laryngoscope. Should a videolaryngoscope be available as a back-up piece of equipment for every intubation? Absolutely. The ASA Difficult Airway Algorithm includes the possible use of a videoscope, and states,
“Consider the relative merits and feasibility of basic management choices:  (consider) video-assisted laryngoscopy as an initial approach to intubation.” An anesthesia provider who initiates general anesthesia and intubation without an immediately available videolaryngoscope is in danger of not being able to follow the algorithm. The hospital I work in is stocked with either the GlideScope and the C-MAC both readily available for difficult intubations. The availability of a videolaryngoscope for either a first attempt or for backup attempts to intubate a difficult airway patient is vital.

Difficult airway cases can lead to malpractice claims. A 2009 study published in Anesthesiology showed that 2.3% of 2,211 anesthesia-related deaths in the United States from 1999-2005 were attributable to difficult intubation and failed intubation.  A 2019 study from the Anesthesia Closed Claims Project database showed that the 102 difficult intubation closed malpractice claims from 2000 to 2012 included sicker patients (n = 78 of 102), emergency procedures (n = 37 of 102), and non-perioperative locations (n = 23 of 102).  Preoperative predictors of difficult tracheal intubation were present in only 76% of the patients. Inappropriate airway management occurred in 71 patients. A “can’t intubate, can’t oxygenate” emergency occurred in 80 of the 102 claims, with a delayed surgical airway occurring in 39% of those cases. The authors wrote, “outcomes remained poor in recent malpractice claims related to difficult tracheal intubation. Inadequate airway planning and judgment errors were contributors to patient harm.”

In conclusion: Difficult intubations are a major anesthesia problem, because of: 1) the difficulty in identifying difficult intubation patients prospectively, 2) the medical comorbidities that occur with difficult airway patients, 3) the medical complications that can occur if difficult airways are mismanaged, 4) the dollar cost of increased healthcare utilization as reported in the Moucharite study, and 5) the potential medical-legal liability risk with each difficult intubation.

SuperMorbidly Obese Patient with a Difficult Airway

 

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

ANESTHESIA IN OUTER SPACE 

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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An astronaut en route to Mars develops severe abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. A fellow crew member examines him and finds significant tenderness and guarding in the right lower quadrant of his abdomen. The crew members teleconference with physicians on Earth, with a 20-minute communication delay because of the 140-million mile distance between them. The physicians confirm a probable diagnosis of appendicitis. Because the spaceship is more than 200 days away from Earth, the physicians instruct the crew to proceed with surgery and anesthesia in outer space.

Outer space medical care will certainly not resemble Dr. Leonard “Bones” McCoy on the original Star Trek, who waved his fictional handheld “tricorder” tool over a patient to diagnose and treat the patient’s illness.

How will astronauts conduct general anesthesia and surgery in outer space? Is an anesthesiologist required on board? Is a surgeon required on board? If the flight crew doesn’t include any physicians, how will the crew proceed to save the astronaut’s life?

Full disclosure: I’ve never given an anesthetic in outer space. But to date, no one else has given an anesthetic to a human in outer space either. Protocols regarding how to accomplish anesthesia in outer space exist in the medical literature.

For comprehensive reading I’d refer you to three papers by expert Matthieu Komorowski MD, an anesthesiologist, intensive care physician, and biomedical engineer at Imperial College London, and a former Research Fellow at the European Space Agency. Three of Komorowski’s key articles are: “Anaesthesia in outer space, the ultimate ambulatory setting?” in Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology; “Fundamentals of Anesthesiology for Spaceflight,” Journal of Cardiothoracic Vascular Anesthesia, and “Potential Anesthesia Protocols for Space Exploration Missions” in Aviation Space Environmental Medicine.

Distant space missions, known as exploration class missions (e.g. missions to the Moon and Mars) are planned in the coming decades. Staffing an astronaut/physician as one of the crew members on a mission to Mars is possible, but I have no information that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is grooming a combination astronaut/anesthesiologist at this time.  In 2017, NASA created an Integrated Medical Model (IMM) as an evidence-based decision support tool to assess risks and design medical systems for extended space travel. The IMM includes 100 medical conditions that might commonly occur during space flight. Twenty-seven of these 100 conditions would require surgical treatment.

The most significant medical risks for space exploration missions are trauma, hemorrhagic shock, and infections. The risk of a medical emergency in space travel is estimated at one event per 68 person months. For a crew of six on a 900-day mission to Mars and back, at least one medical emergency would be expected. On a mission to Mars, the option of a stat return to Earth is impossible. Telemedicine can provide remote communication for medical consultation. While telecommunication between the Moon and Earth would have delays of only 2 seconds in each direction, for a Mars mission the delay in communications could reach up to 20 minutes in each direction, making real-time telemedicine impractical. The communications delay on a Mars mission would also mean that a surgical robot on board could not be controlled by a surgeon on Earth. The crew must be self-reliant.

Only physically and mentally fit candidates who are able to withstand the stresses of space travel are selected as astronauts. Physically and mentally fit candidates are at low risk for medical or surgical emergencies. But with the recent trend of privately funded space programs (e.g. SpaceX), some members of the general public may be offered the opportunity to experience space travel. Privately funded programs may push boundaries regarding the undesirable health status of candidates traveling into space.

PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES IN SPACE

To devise safe anesthetic care for outer space, one must first understand the changes in an astronaut’s body during microgravity. The void of outer space provides a lack of barometric pressure, a lack of oxygen, severe extremes of temperature, and dangerous levels of radiation. Spacecraft are equipped with Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) to ensure livable conditions within the space capsule.  Weightlessness and microgravity cause marked changes in human physiology, described by systems as follows:

Cardiovascular system 

Microgravity causes fluid to redistribute toward the upper half of the body, resulting in facial and airway edema (swelling), and diuresis (increased urination) which leads to an intravascular volume decrease of 10-15%. The systemic vascular resistance in the arterial system decreases about 14% because of dilatation of the blood vessels, but the left ventricular systolic function of the heart is maintained near normal.

Physiology changes in outer space https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2385501/Mark-Kelly-astronaut-twin-brother-Scott-guinea-pigs-NASA-experiment-space-travel-affects-genetics.html

 

Gastrointestinal system

Weightlessness causes a combination of decreased gastric motility and increased gastric acidity. If an astronaut requires general anesthesia, one must assume the patient has a full stomach and is at risk for aspiration.

Respiratory system

Microgravity leads to an increase in respiratory rate and a decrease in tidal volume, resulting in near normal ventilation.

Neurologic system

Microgravity interferes with inner ear function, and causes disturbances in balance and vestibular function. Constant exposure to artificial lighting alters sleep rhythms, and predisposes the crew to impaired mental acuity and depression.

Musculoskeletal system

Weightlessness and inactivity cause an increase in bone resorption. Bone density decreases by about 1% per month, which predisposes astronauts to long bone fractures and kidney stones secondary to increased calcium excretion. Prolonged microgravity leads to deconditioning of the muscular system with skeletal muscle atrophy. This is most marked in the lower body, as the legs become “effectively redundant.” 

 

 

REGIONAL ANESTHESIA VERSUS GENERAL ANESTHESIA

IV fluids

Every anesthetic, regional or general, will require the patient to have an intravenous line, usually in their arm. Astronauts will be trained in the insertion of IV cannulae, and the sampling of blood for diagnostic tests. Storage of prepackaged intravenous fluids can occupy a large volume of precious cargo space. An exploration class mission may require up to 100 liters of IV fluids in case of severe burn injuries. Scientists have developed a system named IVGEN (Intravenous Fluid Generation) to prepare sterile IV normal saline from space station drinking water.

Bubbles in the IV fluids are dangerous, and are filtered out by the system, because bubbles could form air emboli and cause a stroke or a heart attack if they entered the body. Transfusable blood products have a limited shelf life, which makes an onboard blood bank impractical for prolonged space travel. Medical checklists will aim to ensure patient safety and help the astronauts gain familiarity with medical equipment and drugs. Medical kits on board will include a basic vital signs monitor, a mechanical ventilator, an ultrasound machine, suction, airway equipment, and a limited range of drugs with protocols regarding how to use them.

Monitors

Standard patient monitoring would include ECG, non-invasive blood pressure cuff, oxygen saturation, end-tidal CO2, and temperature. Preoperative ultrasound examination can be applied for diagnostic use, the assessment of cardiac function and fluid status, and assistance in visualizing blood vessels for peripheral or central line placement.

REGIONAL ANESTHESIA

A regional technique offers simplicity over general anesthesia, but a successful regional anesthetic requires skill, experience, training, and regular use of such skills. Studies on Earth show that an average of 20 procedures are required to reach a learning curve plateau. A practitioner must be schooled in regional anesthesia techniques on Earth prior to the space flight. The three suggested regional blocks to treat the majority of conditions expected to be encountered in space include femoral, sciatic, and brachial plexus nerve blocks. The blocks would be ultrasound-guided, and there is hope that AI-imbedded ultrasound technology will be available in the future to localize relevant structures such as nerves and blood vessels. The injection of a local anesthetic such as ropivacaine for a regional techniques carries the inherent risk of local anesthetic toxicity. The antidote for local anesthetic toxicity is lipid emulsion, which could occupy valuable space on board, and has a shelf life of only 24 months. Spinal blocks are impractical, as the use of typical hyperbaric local anesthesia such as 0.75% bupivicaine has not been investigated in microgravity to date.

GENERAL ANESTHESIA

General anesthesia has the advantages of a quick and reliable onset. The physiologic changes during microgravity predispose a general anesthesia patient to both aspiration of stomach contents and hypotension due to low intravascular volume. Each general anesthetic would require a preinduction loading with intravenous fluid replacement, followed by a rapid sequence induction and endotracheal intubation. In the absence of gravity, restraints will be required to keep the patient immobile for intubation.

Ketamine

Potent anesthetic gases such as sevoflurane cannot be used in outer space, as vaporizers will not function properly in microgravity. General anesthesia will include intravenous medications only. Ketamine will be the preferred drug of choice for induction of general anesthesia, as spontaneous respiration and cardiovascular stability are maintained. Ketamine induces both a dissociative state and analgesia, and has an extended shelf life of around 20 years in powder form. It’s currently used in remote locations on Earth where there is limited equipment and monitoring (e.g. combat anesthesia in low-income countries). The unpleasant psychomimetic side effects of ketamine are negated by the co-administration of an IV benzodiazepine such as midazolam or Valium. Intravenous atropine will also be administered to minimize the increased oral secretions produced by ketamine.

A muscle relaxant/paralytic drug is recommended to facilitate endotracheal intubation. Succinylcholine will not be used because of its ability to cause hyperkalemia. Rocuronium at a modified rapid sequence dose of 1mg/kg is recommended. A checklist and a PowerPoint presentation on the sequence of drugs and procedures needed to initiate general anesthesia will be available for the astronauts to read prior to and during the administration of general anesthesia. A video laryngoscope will be available, as it is recognized as an easier technique for inexperienced practitioners to complete successful endotracheal intubation. A publication by Komorowski and Fleming, “Intubation after rapid sequence induction performed by non-medical personnel during space exploration missions: a simulation pilot study in a Mars analogue environment,” demonstrated that intubation can be done by non-medical staff with little or no training via instructions from PowerPoint slides.

An intravenous infusion of ketamine is recommended for the maintenance of general anesthesia. Opioids are unlikely to be carried on a spacecraft. It’s likely the analgesic effects of ketamine will be used for acute pain relief. Sugammadex will be available to reverse the neuromuscular blockade from rocuronium, and neuromuscular monitoring will be utilized prior to extubation.

SURGERY IN SPACE

Restraining the surgeon, the patient, and the surgical tools against floating around the room in zero gravity are challenges to overcome in outer space. Magnetizing the surgical tools so they stick to the operating room table, and restraining the astronaut/surgeon and the patient are important adjustments. Surgery involving anesthesia was successfully performed on rodents for the first time in 1990 on the STS-90 Neurolab Space Shuttle. Astronauts repaired rat tails and performed laparoscopy on rodents in microgravity. It’s possible that insufflation of the human abdomen with carbon dioxide gas during laparoscopy in microgravity may cause changes in cardiac or respiratory function. During open abdominal surgery in microgravity, a patient’s intestines would float around and could obscure the view of the surgical field. Because of the large array of surgical equipment necessary for any specific surgery, a 3D printer on the spacecraft may be the solution to create tools as needed.

Bleeding in microgravity causes domes to form around the bleeding site. The domes are held in that shape because of surface tension. Enclosed surgical chambers have been developed to protect the sterile surgical field and the cabin environment during open surgeries in zero gravity. A hermetically sealed expandable surgical chamber for microgravity is called a “surgical overhead canopy” (SOC). The surgical repair can be performed within the canopy, and the canopy prevents organs or blood from floating about the cabin.

Surgical Overhead Canopy (SOC) SpringerLink Image

 

 

Anesthesia in Outer Space – Conclusion

For the appendicitis case introduced in paragraph one, the anesthetic would include the IV loading of 500 ml of normal saline; a rapid sequence intravenous induction of general anesthesia using ketamine, midazolam, atropine, and rocuronium; placement of an endotracheal tube into the patient; and an IV ketamine infusion for the maintenance of anesthesia. Once the patient is anesthetized, the surgery could either proceed as an open abdomen under a sterile surgical canopy, or a laparoscopy with the abdomen remaining closed, depending on the skillset and the surgical equipment available to the surgeon/astronaut on board.

One day an astronaut will perform the first anesthetic on a human in outer space. The astronaut will most likely not be a board-certified anesthesiologist, and he or she will likely follow a PowerPoint slide show demonstrating the sequence of procedures and pharmacology for successful anesthesia. Expect the first anesthetic in space to be a tense, exciting, and dramatic event in the history of medicine.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

 

 

 

 

 

CIPROFOL VS  PROPOFOL

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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Ciprofol is a new intravenous (IV) anesthetic agent which is undergoing early clinical trials in China, and may become a significant tool in our anesthesia armamentarium if and when the drug is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States. Ciprofol has a chemical structure similar to propofol. Because of its rapid onset and rapid offset profile, propofol is currently the most used IV anesthetic drug in the world. Propofol is used for surgical anesthesia, procedural sedation, and intensive care unit (ICU) sedation. Propofol was FDA-approved in the United States in 1986 and is now off patent. Generic propofol is inexpensive, averaging about $2.27 for a 20 ml vial. Limitations of propofol include (a) respiratory depression, such that it can only be used by physicians who are expert in airway management (e.g. anesthesiologists, CRNAs, and emergency room doctors); (b) hemodynamic depression in some elderly or sick patients; (c) pain on injection; and (d) the propofol infusion syndrome (PIS) which can lead to hyperkalemia and cardiac arrest in ICU patients after prolonged exposure to propofol infusions.

The chemical formula of ciprofol is similar to propofol, but with single R-configured diastereoisomers.

Ciprofol is about 5 times more potent than propofol. Like propofol, ciprofol is formulated in a lipid emulsion with a drug concentration of 10 mg/mL. Let’s review the published literature on ciprofol to date. All of the following studies were done in China:

Phase 1 trials (small groups of subjects are given a single dose of the drug, and are observed and tested for a period of time to confirm safety):

Teng et al. (2021) conducted a phase I trial which demonstrated that a ciprofol dosing regimen of 0.4-0.9 mg/kg was well-tolerated and exhibited rapid onset and recovery properties. Peak plasma concentration occurred 2 minutes after injection, and all subjects recovered fully after ciprofol administration, with the shortest time being 9.2 minutes in the 0.4 mg/kg group.

Hu et al. (2021) also conducted a phase I trial in which subjects received continuous ciprofol or propofol infusions for up to 12 hours. The safety and tolerability of both drugs were comparable.

Phase II trials (performed on larger groups, e.g. 50–300 patients, to evaluate whether the drug has any biological activity or effect):

Teng et al. (2021) conducted a study on 1000 patients, which showed that ciprofol 0.4-0.5 mg/kg induced equivalent sedation/anesthesia to propofol 2.0 mg/kg during colonoscopy, and had a similar safety profile without producing serious adverse effects. No apnea was observed in any patients in the ciprofol group, but 5 patients in the propofol 2.0 mg/kg group experienced apnea. The incidence of injection pain was higher in the propofol group than in the ciprofol group (55% vs 6.8%). There were no significant dose-dependent changes in blood pressure in either the ciprofol or propofol groups.

Liu et al. (2021) conducted a phase II trial which involved 36 ICU patients who were on mechanical ventilation.  A remifentanil infusion of 0.02–0.15 μg·kg−1·min−1  plus either ciprofol or propofol were used for analgesia and sedation. The ciprofol loading dose was 0.1–0.2 mg/kg with a maintenance infusion rate of 0.3 mg/kg/h. The propofol loading was at 0.5–1.0 mg/kg, with a maintenance infusion rate of 1.5 mg/kg/h. The tolerability, sedation characteristics, and adverse events such as hypotension were comparable between both groups. The authors concluded that “ciprofol is comparable to propofol with good tolerance and efficacy for sedation of Chinese intensive care unit patients undergoing mechanical ventilation in the present study setting.”

The propofol infusion syndrome (PIS) is a potentially lethal syndrome that occurs due to prolonged infusion described in adults and pediatric ICU patients who are on mechanical ventilation. To date, published studies have not administered multi-day infusions of ciprofol to mechanically ventilated ICU patients to determine whether there is anything similar to PIS with ciprofol.

Wu et al. (2022) published a single-center trial on 92 patients titled “Efficacy and safety of ciprofol-remifentanil versus propofol-remifentanil during fiberoptic bronchoscopy.” Fentanyl (50 μg) was given to all patient 2 minutes before the intravenous administration of either 0.3 mg/kg of ciprofol or 1.2 mg/kg of propofol, followed by a remifentanil infusion in both groups. Top-up doses of one-third to one-fourth of the initial dose of ciprofol or propofol were repeated at 2-minute intervals as needed. The two drugs were comparable. The authors concluded that “ciprofol-remifentanil was non-inferior to propofol-remifentanil with regard to successful sedation for flexible bronchoscopy.” Systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressures declined significantly less in the ciprofol-remifentanil group (p < 0.05). There was no difference in respiratory depression between the two groups, and the only statistical difference in adverse effects was a decrease in pain on injection for ciprofol over propofol (p=.001).

Chen et al. (2022) compared ciprofol and propofol in 120 women for the induction of anesthesia in gynecologic surgery. Intravenous midazolam (0.03 mg/kg) and sufentanil (0.3 μg/kg) were administered initially, followed by ciprofol (0.4 mg/kg) or propofol (2 mg/kg). After the loss of consciousness, rocuronium (0.6 mg/kg) was administered and endotracheal intubation was performed. Within the initial 10 minutes following study drug administration, blood pressure declined significantly less in the ciprofol group than in the propofol group. The authors concluded that “ciprofol was associated with slightly less pronounced effects on the cardiovascular system.” The incidence of injection pain was higher in the propofol group than in the ciprofol group (58% vs 16%, p < 0.001).

Chen et al. (2022) studied adverse reactions of ciprofol and propofol in 96 patients for gastroenteroscopy. Neither ciprofol nor propofol caused statistically significant differences in vital signs. The authors concluded that “in painless gastroenteroscopy, compared with propofol, ciprofol is equally safe and effective for patients.”

Lan et al. (2022) randomized 150 patients to ciprofol or propofol for hysteroscopy. All patients received intravenous sufentanil 0.1 μg/kg IV initially. Ciprofol patients then received an induction dose of 0.4 mg/kg and a maintenance dosage of 1.0 mg/kg/h. Propofol patients received an induction dose of  2.0 mg/kg and a maintenance dosage of 5.0 mg/kg/h. After the sedative administration, the systolic, diastolic, and mean pressures all  dropped significantly lower in the propofol group than in the ciprofol group. During the procedure, 2/75 ciprofol patients vs 17/75 propofol patients required an airway intervention such as a chin-lift or jaw-thrust maneuver (p< 0.05). The authors concluded that “the lower level of respiratory depression seen with ciprofol makes this drug more suitable and safer than propofol for hysteroscopic procedures.”

Phase III trials (randomized controlled multicenter trials on larger patient groups, aimed at determining how effective the drug is in comparison with the current “gold standard” treatment, i.e. propofol):

Li et al. (2022) conducted a phase III study at ten teaching hospitals, comparing ciprofol and propofol for deep sedation for colonoscopy or gastroscopy. A total of 289 patients were studied. Each patient received 50 μg fentanyl 1 minute before the intravenous infusion of either ciprofol (0.4 mg/kg) or propofol (1.5 mg/kg). Up to five top-up doses of 1/2 the initial dose were given upon signs of inadequate sedation, and repeated at 2-minute intervals as required. The mean time for a patient to become fully alert after the procedure was 3.3 minutes in the ciprofol group vs. 2.0 minutes for the propofol group (P < 0.001). The time to discharge was 7.4 minutes for the ciprofol group vs. 6.0 minutes for the propofol group (P < 0.001). Nine patients (6.3%) in the ciprofol group and 15 patients (10.3%) in the propofol group had respiratory events (respiratory depression, apnea, or hypoxemia), all of which were mild or moderate in severity. The authors concluded that “at a dose of 0.4 mg/kg for deep sedation, ciprofol was non-inferior to 1.5 mg/kg propofol in the success rate of gastroscopy and colonoscopy and exhibited a good safety profile.”

Wang et al. (2022) published a multi-center, double-blind phase III trial in which 186 surgery patients were randomly assigned to either ciprofol 0.4 mg/kg or propofol 2.0 mg/kg for the induction of general anesthesia. Ciprofol was “non-inferior” to propofol. Once again, the incidence of injection pain was significantly lower in the ciprofol patients compared to the propofol patients (6.8% vs. 20.5%, p < 0.05).

MY TAKE: WILL CIPROFOL BE A SUCCESSFUL ADDITION TO OUR IV ANESTHESIA DRUG ARSENAL?

It depends.

  • If ciprofol and propofol were cost-equivalent, ciprofol would gain some market share, and might prove to be a superior drug to propofol. However, when and if it is FDA-approved in the United States, ciprofol will cost significantly more than propofol because ciprofol will be on patent. Hospitals and surgery centers will be reluctant to pay more for the drug unless there are proven advantages. Ciprofol appears to have significantly less pain on injection when compared to propofol, but pain on injection with propofol is not a major issue. Pain on injection does not lead to any long term adverse outcomes, and the pain can be blocked by injecting IV lidocaine immediately prior the initial dose of IV propofol. 
  • The data that ciprofol leads to less blood pressure decreases than propofol shows only a mild difference—too small an advantage to mandate replacing propofol with ciprofol for that reason alone.
  • So far there are no data to confirm or deny that there is any equivalent to propofol infusion syndrome with ciprofol. If there is no prolonged infusion syndrome, then ciprofol may find a market for ICU sedation of mechanically ventilated patients.
  • Overall, I believe ciprofol must promise a lack of respiratory depression if the new drug is to capture any of propofol’s market share for procedural sedation/surgical anesthesia. The most bothersome issue with propofol is the risk of respiratory depression, which requires an anesthesia professional or airway expert administer the drug. If a patient is oversedated with propofol, that patient may stop breathing or have upper airway obstructed breathing, which can lead to hypoxia, cardiac arrest, and anoxic brain damage. The FDA warnings for propofol include:

For general anesthesia or monitored anesthesia care (MAC) sedation, DIPRIVAN Injectable Emulsion should be administered only by persons trained in the administration of general anesthesia and not involved in the conduct of the surgical/diagnostic procedure. Sedated patients should be continuously monitored, and facilities for maintenance of a patent airway, providing artificial ventilation, administering supplemental oxygen, and instituting cardiovascular resuscitation must be immediately available. Patients should be continuously monitored for early signs of hypotension, apnea, airway obstruction, and/or oxygen desaturation. These cardiorespiratory effects are more likely to occur following rapid bolus administration, especially in the elderly, debilitated, or ASA-PS III or IV patients.

In the Li study above, 6.3% of the ciprofol patients had mild to moderate respiratory adverse events when sedated for GI endoscopy. While the 6.3% rate is lower than the 10.3% rate for the propofol patients, the non-zero incidence of respiratory events with ciprofol in this one study points to an anesthesia professional still needing to be present if ciprofol is administered for endoscopy.

In the Lan study above, during IV sedation only 2/75 ciprofol patients, compared with 17/75 propofol patients, required airway intervention such as with a chin-lift or a jaw-thrust maneuver during hysteroscopy (p< 0.05). This lower incidence of required airway intervention is encouraging, but the incidence is still not zero, and we’ll need more data to document the respiratory risks of ciprofol.

If ciprofol sedation is found to NOT produce any significant respiratory depression, apnea, or upper airway obstruction (therefore less risk of hypoxia and anoxic brain damage), this would be a profound advance over propofol. Then ciprofol could be administered for procedural sedation, e.g. for gastroenteroscopy, without an anesthesia airway expert attending to the patient. There is insufficient studies to date to know whether this will be true or not.

My guess? After all the data is in, ciprofol will cause a non-zero incidence of respiratory depression, and therefore a non-zero risk of hypoxia and anoxic brain damage, so an anesthesia airway expert will be necessary to administer the drug. The advantage of ciprofol’s lower but non-zero incidence of required airway intervention will not be a major advance in the hands of anesthesia professionals. The higher cost of ciprofol will preclude the decision of hospitals and surgery centers to switch to ciprofol until the new drug is off patent.

We’ll have to wait for more data on ciprofol, but don’t be surprised if propofol remains on top of the intravenous sedative/hypnotic anesthesia drug pedestal after the studies are concluded.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include: How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia? Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia? Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia? What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications? How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century? Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia? What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include: 10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6? 12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99? Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM  

 

 

MOCK ORAL BOARD EXAMS

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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The Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford has administered Mock Oral Board Exams to its residents twice yearly since the 1980s. The Mock Oral is designed to mimic the conditions of the American Board of Anesthesiology (ABA) Standardized Oral Exam (SOE), which candidates must pass to become board-certified. The reference article The American Board of Anesthesiology’s Standardized Oral Examination for Initial Board Certification provides an extensive summary of the oral board examination process. 

In a previous column I advised examinees how to best prepare for the Standardized Oral Exam, and how to best perform on the exam. In this column I’ll outline how to set up a Mock Oral Exam program.

The pass rate for the Standardized Oral Exam is approximately 88%.  By subtraction, about 12% of candidates fail the SOE. 

SOE (Standardized Oral Exam) pass rates for the American Board of Anesthesiology 2017 – 2021

I believe all candidates can benefit from taking Mock Oral Exams before they take the ABA test. I took my initial Mock Oral as a first-year resident in 1984 and I failed, botching the management of a difficult airway by performing a tracheostomy too soon. I took two Mock Orals each year after that and passed the ABA Oral Exam on my first attempt. I can attest that Mock Orals are an effective simulation to prepare for the ABA exam. One can search online and find books and prep classes to prepare for the Standardized Oral Board Exam, but the only way to rehearse verbal skills for an oral exam is take practice oral exams. It’s within the resources of every anesthesia residency program to provide Mock Oral Exams for their trainees. As an examiner I’ve administered Mock Oral Exams to over 100 residents since 1989. The recipe on how to set up such a program follows below:

SCHEDULING MOCK ORAL EXAMS

Assume a residency program has 10 residents in each year, for a total number of 30 residents. On three separate evenings in November, set up Mock Oral Exams for the first year, second year, and third year residents. Provide an equal number of examiners as you have examinees. Group the examiners in pairs and send each pair to a separate office room in your hospital headquarters. For example:

November 28th. First year resident exams from 1700 hours – 1735 hours, and from 1745 hours – 1820 hours. At 1700 hours the team of Faculty Member A and Faculty Member B will examine Resident Alpha. At the same time, in four adjoining rooms four other pairs of faculty members will examine four additional residents. At 1745 hours Faculty Member A and Faculty Member B will examine Resident Beta with the same exam question. The same format is followed in the four adjoining rooms, testing a total of ten first year residents. 

November 29th. Second Year Resident exams from 1700 hours – 1735 hours, and from 1745 hours – 1820 hours. The same staffing as November 28th is repeated. The examiners may be different. The exam questions are more difficult, given that the residents are one year further in their training.

November 30th. Third Year Resident exams from 1700 hours – 1735 hours, and from 1745 hours – 1820 hours. The same staffing as November 28th is repeated. The examiners may be different. The exam questions are more difficult than on November 28th or 29th, given that the residents are in the last year of their residency training.

In May of the same academic year the exam sequence as above is repeated, giving each resident their second Mock Oral in the same training year. Each Mock Oral Exam lasts 35 minutes. The first 25 minutes will be questions about a hypothetical patient. The first examiner (e.g. Faculty Member A) begins by asking 10 minutes of questions dealing with preoperative anesthesia issues, followed by 15 minutes of questions about intraoperative issues by the second examiner (e.g. Faculty Member B), and in the final 10 minutes Faculty Member A asks questions about three completely different patients with assorted anesthesia dilemmas. 

SAMPLE MOCK ORAL TEST STEM:

An example of a Second Year Resident Mock Oral Board stem follows:

A 50-year-old man with hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and obstructive sleep apnea presents for an emergency surgery for a small bowel obstruction. He has been vomiting and unable to eat or pass gas for 12 hours. He has 8/10 pain in the abdomen. His medications are hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension, last taken 24 hours prior to admission, and a continuous insulin pump which he stopped 10 hours ago. He is 5 feet 6 inches tall and weighs 100 kg for a BMI=35. His pulse=120 beats per minute, blood pressure=170/105, oxygen saturation on room air=96%, respiratory rate=24 breaths per minute, and temperature=98.6. 

Physical exam: He is doubled over in abdominal pain and looks exhausted. His airway shows a thick neck circumference of 18 inches and a full beard. Except for tachycardia he has normal cardiac and lung exams. His abdomen is distended, and he has rebound abdominal tenderness and hyperactive bowel sounds. His labs are normal except for a glucose = 455 mg/dL and a potassium = 3.0 mEq/L. His ECG shows normal sinus rhythm. His chest X-ray is normal.

The script given to Faculty Member A reads as follows:

10 MINUTES – INTRAOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT 

  1. Blood glucose. How would you manage his blood glucose level? What would be your target glucose concentration? How would you administer insulin? How do you administer U-100 insulin? How would hypoglycemia present during general anesthesia? 
  2. Monitoring. Does this patient require invasive monitoring? Would you place an arterial line prior to induction? Why?  Is a CVP necessary? Why or why not? Would you use a pulmonary artery catheter? What about TE echo?
  3. Airway management. How would you manage the airway? Would you do an awake intubation? How would you do this? Would you do a rapid sequence induction? Which muscle relaxant would you use? Why? Assume you do a rapid sequence induction and you cannot see the vocal cords. What do you do? What if  you cannot intubate the patient and you cannot ventilate the patient with a mask?
  4. Potassium management. Will you administer potassium? Why? How fast would you give potassium? What are the risks of a low potassium during anesthesia? What are the risks of a high potassium concentration during replacement?
  5. Choice of anesthetic. What will be your plan for anesthetic maintenance? What are the advantages of inhaled anesthesia? Of total intravenous anesthesia? Which would you choose and why? Is there a role for regional anesthesia for this case? Why or why not?

The script given to Faculty Member B reads as follows:

15 MINUTES – POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT 

  1. Extubation. Would you extubate the patient following the surgery? What would be your criteria for extubation? You decide to extubate the patient in the operating room. Immediately following extubation, his oxygen saturation falls to 80%. What is your differential diagnosis? How would you manage the situation?
  2. Arrythmia. On arrival to the ICU the patient’s heart rate increases to 150. How would you evaluate? Assume the blood pressure is 110/70. What therapeutic measures would you take? Assume blood pressure is 70/40. What therapeutic measures would you take?
  3. Oliguria. Assume the cardiac status is stabilized. The patient makes 80 ml of urine over the first two hours postoperatively. What is your differential diagnosis? What tests could you order? Why? Would you give a fluid bolus? Would you give a diuretic? Why? 
  4. Chest pain. Assume the patient is extubated on arrival to the ICU. He complains of upper abdominal/mid chest pain. How would you evaluate? What is your differential diagnosis? What tests would you order? How would you manage the situation?
  5. Postoperative pain. Assume no heart abnormalities are found. The patient is complaining of abdominal pain after surgery. How would you manage pain control? 

The final script for Faculty Member A reads as follows:

10 MINUTES – ADDITIONAL TOPICS 

  1. Pediatric open eye, full stomach. A 5-year-old child presents with an open eye injury due to a fall against a sharp table corner. She needs emergency surgery to save her eyesight. She ate a McDonalds Happy Meal two hours ago, but the ophthalmologist says the surgical repair cannot wait. The child will not let you start an IV while she is awake. How would you induce anesthesia? Would you consider a mask induction? Would you consider an intramuscular induction? How would you deal with the full stomach? How would you proceed? The child vomits during induction. How would you manage this?
  2. Morbidly obese patient for C-section. A 30-year-old woman presents in labor at 39 weeks. She is morbidly obese with a BMI=42. Her obstetrician decides the patient needs an urgent Cesarean section because of late decelerations on the fetal heart monitor. Would you choose regional anesthesia or general? Why? You attempt to place an epidural but get a wet tap. What would you do? If you had to administer a general anesthetic, how would you proceed?
  3. Family history of malignant hyperthermia. A 17-year-old boy with a tonsillar abscess presents for tonsillectomy. His uncle had a history of dying from malignant hyperthermia after tonsillectomy. Is this case appropriate for a freestanding outpatient surgery center? Would you delay the case? Would you order any preoperative tests? The surgeon says the case is urgent. What is your anesthetic plan?

At the conclusion of the 35-minute Mock Oral exam, the two examiners will stop. At this time the examiners discuss the performance with the resident examinee. This conversation includes:

  1. Asking the resident how they felt they did. 
  2. Discussing whether the resident made any anesthetic decisions that were unsafe, i.e. made the patient’s condition worse, or that led to a poor outcome.
  3. Discussing whether the resident answered the questions by describing what he or she would do. (This is the key to succeeding in oral examinations.)
  4. Discussing the resident’s communication and presentation skills, i.e. did they have effective eye contact, a confident speaking tone, and acceptable body language?
  5. Discussing whether the resident projected a fund of knowledge acceptable for their level of training.

Advice to Faculty Examiners on how to best perform a Mock Oral Exam:

  1. If you know the examinee personally, conduct the exam as if this was the first time you’d met them, i.e. they are “Dr. Examinee,” not “Justin,” or “Jennifer.”
  2. Read each question within the stem to the examinee, and listen to how they answer. Your job is to assess the examinee’s expertise in managing challenging anesthesia circumstances. If their answer is correct, quickly move on to the next question so you can test them on a new aspect of the patient care.
  3. Anytime an examinee introduces a new drug or a new test or a new fact into their answer, consider digging deeper by asking, “What is _____? What do you know about ____?”
  4. Don’t give immediate feedback after an answer by saying “OK.” Don’t reveal correct answers to the examinee during the exam.
  5. The examinee should not be asking you questions. If you are asked a question, deflect it by re-asking your previous question.
  6. Interject unexpected complications into each patient management, e.g. the blood pressure rises markedly or falls markedly, the pulse rate rises markedly or falls markedly, the oxygen saturation falls markedly. Find out what the examinee’s answer is in terms of differential diagnosis of the cause, and what their action(s) would be to correct the complication.
  7. Evaluate whether the examinee manages anesthesia and complications safely.
  8. Include a management of a difficult airway situation. The quickest way for an examinee to fail an oral exam is to lose an airway. 
  9. The purpose of the three extra cases in the last 10 minutes of the exam is to assess the examinee’s performance in areas that weren’t covered by the stem question, i.e. to round out the examination of pediatric, neuro, obstetric, cardiothoracic, pain, or regional anesthesia knowledge.
  10. Pay attention to the examinee’s body language, their eye contact, the confidence of their verbal answers, and their fund of medical knowledge. Does the candidate speak and answer like a consultant in anesthesiology would?

The University of North Carolina Department of Anesthesiology also administers twice yearly Mock Oral Board Exams. They videotape each exam so that each resident’s performance can be reviewed at a later date. 

Image from a videotape of Mock Oral Exams at the University of North Carolina Department of Anesthesiology

Writing Mock Oral Questions is not difficult. Performing the role of an examiner is not difficult. Prior to the exam, faculty examiners can look up the answers after reading through the questions, if they don’t know that specific area of anesthesia knowledge. 

Beyond the role of faculty members providing a Mock Oral Exam program, it’s also possible for examinees to prepare and give Mock Oral Exams to each other on their own time, as an opportunity for practicing and honing their verbal answering skills.

I recommend a Mock Oral Exam program as a key step toward passing the ABA Standardized Oral Exam, and toward becoming a board-certified consultant.

 in our field. As stated above, the only way to rehearse the verbal skills necessary for an oral exam is take practice oral exams. Good luck! 

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

AUDIT TRAILS = THE BIG BROTHER OF MEDICAL CARE  

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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The Audit Trail in the Electronic Medical Record

A spy lurks within every Electronic Medical Record (EMR), and most doctors have no idea that sentry exists. Every time a healthcare provider clicks his or her mouse on an EMR, that click is recorded by the Orwellian Big Brother of Medical Care, the audit trail. An audit trail can be defined as a “record that shows who has accessed a computer system, when it was accessed, and what operations were performed.” Virtually all EMRs in the United States now track at least four pieces of information about every instance a healthcare provider accesses a patient: 

  1. Who accessed, 
  2. Which patient record,
  3. At what time, and 
  4. The action they performed. 

The audit trail is NOT part of the EMR printout, and it’s not visible on the EMR patient care screen that we healthcare providers see. Lawyers can subpoena the audit trail in malpractice legislation, and the hospital must provide the audit trail if the court decides that the audit trail is relevant. An audit trail will look like an Excel document, with the provider’s name in one column and the information about each click listed in other columns:

In any malpractice legislation, an attorney will most likely have to hire an expert to interpret this audit trail for the judge and jury to understand what the document illustrates.

The audit trail was mandated by the 2005 Security Rule of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which required all healthcare organizations to “implement hardware, software, and/or procedural mechanisms that record and examine activity in information systems that contain or use electronic protected health information.”  Any organization that works with electronic protected health information—which includes patient names, addresses, social security numbers, and other pieces of sensitive personal information—must use audit trails. The purpose of the audit trail was to detect inappropriate viewing of the EMR by someone who was not directly caring for the patient. For example, preventing a healthcare provider from clicking on the EMR of someone else’s patient who is a neighbor, a previous girlfriend, a celebrity athlete, politician, or entertainer. But an audit trail is a roadmap to a physician’s EMR use, and in the case of a malpractice lawsuit, the audit trail can be either redeeming or damning.

Back in the era of handwritten medical records, Samuel Shem described “buffing the chart” in his medical satire novel “The House of God.” 

“Buffing the chart” was a dishonest means of writing medical notes in a patient’s chart to make the patient look well-treated, without the doctor providing that treatment. Buffing the chart, or any other dishonesty, is impossible with EMRs. The audit trail will document whether you provided standard medical care in real time or not. If your patient has a significant complication or an adverse outcome, a lawyer can subpoena the audit trail and hire an expert to interpret it. 

Indeed, the most common use of audit trails is in medical malpractice actions. Let’s look at some hypothetical examples:

  • A 36-year-old woman is scheduled for emergency surgery at 3 a.m. for an ectopic pregnancy. The patient weighs 250 pounds and is 5 feet tall, for a Body Mass Index (BMI) = 48.8. On induction of general anesthesia, the anesthesiologist working alone is unable to successfully place an endotracheal breathing tube and is unable to ventilate oxygen into the patient. The patient develops anoxic brain damage. The family sues the anesthesiologist, and the plaintiff attorney orders an audit trail. The audit trail documents that the anesthesiologist never clicked on an available old anesthetic record which documented that this patient had a difficult airway, in which it took two anesthesiologists twenty minutes to successfully insert an endotracheal breathing tube using both a GlideScope and a fiberoptic laryngoscope. The audit trail also documents that one day after the surgery, the anesthesiologist added a paragraph to his preoperative note claiming that he was aware of the previous difficult airway diagnosis. Once the audit trail results were revealed, the anesthesiologist and his defense lawyer realize that they cannot win, and they pay a malpractice settlement out of court.  
  • A 55-year-old man is scheduled for a left hip replacement. His past medical history is significant only for hyperlipidemia. The EMR shows standard of care anesthetic management for the surgery, but in the Post Anesthesia Care Unit (PACU) the patient develops shortness of breath, chest pain, and needs to be reintubated and sent to the Intensive Care Unit. Cardiologists diagnose an acute myocardial infarction (MI) and congestive heart failure. The patient survives, but the MI leaves the patient with reduced cardiac output and chronic heart failure. The patient sues, and the plaintiff attorney orders an audit trail. The audit trail reveals that the anesthesiologist never looked at the preoperative ECG which showed ischemic changes. The standard of care following this abnormal ECG required a cardiology consult prior to the elective surgery. The plaintiff wins the case as the anesthesiologist and the primary care doctor failed to make the required referral to a cardiologist prior to the hip surgery.
  • A 55-year-old patient on chronic dialysis is scheduled for revision of a left forearm dialysis fistula. The patient receives general anesthesia for the case and has a cardiac arrest mid-surgery. The patient’s family sues, and the plaintiff attorney orders an audit trail. The audit trail shows that the patient’s potassium level prior to surgery was markedly elevated at 8.1, and this lab value was available on the chart 30 minutes prior to the induction of anesthesia, and the anesthesiologist never clicked on the laboratory value to check what the result was prior to the surgery. The plaintiff wins the malpractice lawsuit.

The following are quotations from a legal review article titled “A Pandora’s Box: The EMR’s Audit Trail.”

  1. A subpoena for audit trail information must be for legitimate reasons.  
  2. There is no clear precedent currently on the issue of whether a defendant health care provider must produce an audit trail as a matter of standard course as if it were the medical record itself. Courts surprisingly are deciding the issue primarily on relevance grounds.
  3. Once the audit trail is produced and counsel has had a chance to review it to the care rendered, plaintiff’s counsel may seek to make an issue regarding the truthfulness of the information contained in the EMR at trial including allegations of alteration or wrongdoing.
  4. Simple conjecture or inferences that an EMR record was altered based on a review of the audit trail is not enough, and expert testimony to support that position may be required. Absent expert testimony, a plaintiff patient was not permitted to present evidence to the jury.

The following are quotations from a legal publication “The Utility of Audit Trails Analysis in Medical Malpractice Actions” :

  1. Each time a patient’s EMR is opened, regardless of the reason, the audit trail documents this detail. The audit trail cannot be erased, and all events related to the access of a patient’s EHR are permanently documented in the audit trail. Providers cannot hide anything they do with the medical record. No one can escape the audit trail. It’s easy to see how and why an audit trail could serve as an important piece of evidence in a medical malpractice action. 
  2. In printed form, [audit trails] can look like gibberish to the untrained eye. Fortunately, there’s a simple solution to these problems: the use of an expert trained in understanding and navigating EMR systems and interpreting and explaining audit trails.

The take-home message: the era of “buffing the chart” is over. Whenever we healthcare providers click on any item on the EMR, or whenever we don’t click on an item on the EMR, a Big Brother Audit Trail is watching and permanently recording who accessed the EMR, which patient item was accessed, at what time, and what action was performed.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

THE RISK OF ANESTHESIA PATIENT TRANSPORT 

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Imagine this scenario: You’ve just finished anesthetizing a patient in a hospital setting, and the patient now requires transport from the operating room (OR) to the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU). During surgery your patient monitors included: a pulse oximeter, an ECG, a blood pressure cuff, a temperature monitor, and a monitor of the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and anesthetic concentration of every breath inhaled and exhaled. During the transport to the PACU, a trip which can be as short as 1 minute or as long as 5 minutes, there are no specific standards regarding monitoring. It’s common for zero monitoring equipment to be attached to the patient. It’s also not uncommon for the patient to be breathing room air during transport. When you arrive at the PACU, a nurse reattaches your patient to the vital sign monitors, and discovers that the patient’s oxygen saturation has dropped from 100% in the OR to a severely low value of 80% in the PACU. 

Patients can have inadequate breathing on arrival at the PACU for multiple reasons, including oversedation from narcotics, oversedation from propofol or general anesthetic gases, residual paralysis from muscle paralysis drugs, upper airway obstruction, laryngospasm, obesity, sleep apnea, or pulmonary disease. An anesthesiologist can easily make a diagnosis of inadequate breathing if a patient is connected to a pulse oximeter. Should we routinely monitor a patient’s oxygen saturation level during transport to the PACU?  Let’s examine current standards and policies regarding anesthesia patient transport and review the published incidence of inadequate oxygenation following OR to PACU transport.

The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Standards for Post-Anesthesia Care state: 

“A PATIENT TRANSPORTED TO THE PACU SHALL BE ACCOMPANIED BY A MEMBER OF THE ANESTHESIA CARE TEAM WHO IS KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT THE PATIENT’S CONDITION.  THE PATIENT SHALL BE CONTINUALLY EVALUATED AND TREATED DURING TRANSPORT WITH MONITORING AND SUPPORT APPROPRIATE TO THE PATIENT’S CONDITION.”

This sounds like a reasonable standard, but it’s non-specific and leaves the decision regarding oxygen therapy and monitoring up to the individual member of the anesthesia care team’s judgment.

One the Harvard hospitals, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, published the following policy regarding anesthesia transport:

Post Anesthesia Transport Monitoring 

After an anesthetic, the patient is usually transferred to the PACU or an ICU. This guideline sets out to clarify the type of patients who will need monitoring during transportation, and the nature of monitoring required. 

Monitoring during transport is mandatory for the following patients 

·  Any patient designated as needing ICU care, irrespective of whether the patient actually goes to the PACU or an ICU. 

·  Patients who are receiving vasopressors, vasodilators, or inotropes. 

·  Any patient who has a pulmonary artery catheter in situ.

·  All intubated patients. 

·  Any patient who has had an unstable course during the anesthetic. 

·  Any patient who needs to be transported for longer than 5 minutes to the recovery area.

The above list is not exhaustive and monitoring for transportation may be instituted for any patient at the discretion of the anesthesiologist. 

This is a reasonable policy, but what if anesthesia patient transport to the PACU lasts 4 minutes and 59 seconds (i.e. a long transport, but less than 5 minutes to the recovery area)?

The most common complications for in-hospital transported patients are respiratory, meaning that a patient has inadequate breathing and/or inadequate oxygen therapy during transport. The following five studies document that unmonitored patients frequently have low oxygen levels following transport to the recovery room.

In the 2012 study Does the transportation of patients from the operating room to the post-anesthetic care unit require supplemental oxygen? the authors prospectively looked at 50 patients transported from the OR to the PACU. They measured the oxygen saturation when each patient left the OR and when the patient arrived in the PACU. Moderate hypoxemia (oxygen saturation 86% to 90%) and severe hypoxemia (oxygen saturation less than 85%) occurred in 8% and 4% of patients, respectively. Seventy-five percent of the patients with moderate or severe hypoxemia were obese, and 42% were smokers. 

In the 2012 prospective study Hypoxemia after general anesthesia, 

959 patients underwent elective surgery under general anesthesia in a university hospital. All were transported to the PACU on room air without oxygen supplementation. The oxygen saturation level was measured at the end of the transfer to the PACU. Seventeen percent of patients had a pulse oximetry reading < 90%, and 6.6% had a pulse oximetry reading < 85%. The authors concluded that “transportation of patients breathing room air from the OR to the PACU directly after GA without use of PO or supplemental oxygen seems to be questionable in terms of patient safety.”

In the 2015 study, Impact of medical training clinical experience on the assessment of oxygenation and hypoxemia after general anesthesia: an observational study, anesthetists, nurses, and medical students estimated the oxygen saturation level in their patients at the end of transfer to the PACU, after the patients had been breathing room air during the transfer following surgery under general anesthesia. The estimated oxygen saturation level was compared to the actual oxygen saturation level measured by pulse oximetry. Low oxygen saturation (oxygen saturation < 90 %) occurred in 154 out of 1,138 patients (13.5 %). Anesthetists, nurses, and medical students accurately identified only 25, 23, and 21 of the 154 patients as being hypoxemic, respectively. The authors concluded that “considering the uncertainty about deleterious effects of transient, short-lasting hypoxemia, routine use of pulse oximetry is advocated for patient transfer to the PACU.”

In the 2016 study Predictors of desaturation during patient transport to the postoperative anesthesia care unit: an observational study, 13% of 505 patients had hypoxemia during transfer to the PACU. The three risk factors for low oxygen saturation were a Richmond agitation-sedation (RASS) score lower than -2, an oxygen saturation <96% before exiting the operating room, and a body mass index >30. Seventy-two percent of the patients were transferred without oxygen, and most of the hypoxemia appeared in these patients. The authors concluded that the development of hypoxemia during transfer from the OR to the PACU was greater in patients who were more sedated, obese, or had lower oxygen saturations when they left the OR. The authors also concluded that “supplemental oxygen should be considered in higher risk patients.”

In the 2020 study Complications associated with the anesthesia transport of pediatric patients, the authors looked at a database of 2971 events pediatric adverse events, and 5% (148 events) were related to patient transport. The adverse events were primarily respiratory. Nearly 40% of the reported adverse events occurred in infants of an age less than or equal to 6 months. Seventy-five percent of the adverse respiratory events occurred postoperatively during transport from the OR to the PACU or the OR to the intensive care unit (ICU).

The distance from the OR to the PACU in the hospital I work at can be as much as 120 yards, and require anesthesia patient transport times of up to 5 minutes. The hospital supplies oxygen tanks on every gurney used to transport surgical patients from the OR to the PACU. The anesthesiologist administers nasal or mask oxygen to patients during transport.

Regarding respiratory monitoring during transport, a non-electronic monitor formerly utilized by anesthesiologists during patient transport was to pull a patient’s jaw toward the ceiling, with the palm of our hand of spanning across the patient’s mouth. In this manner we could feel each exhaled breath, documenting that the patient was breathing and ventilating themselves.

Since the arrival of COVID and the high risk of the spread of infection, anesthesiologists are wearing gloves whenever they are managing airways, and sensing a patient’s breathing through the thickness of the glove is ineffective. We need pulse oximetry monitoring.

to document adequate breathing and oxygenation. 

Every hospital owns portable vital sign monitors that look something like this:

portable vital sign monitor

These devices show real-time numeric values for the oxygen saturation, heart rate, ECG rhythm, and blood pressure, the same vital signs that are followed in the operating room. The acquisition cost for this monitor is currently $1300 per unit. If a hospital has 12 operating rooms, the total cost of 12 X $1300 = $15,600 is a reasonable investment to avoid patient complications of unstable vital signs during transport. 

What about a less expensive alternative? What about the inexpensive battery-powered pulse oximeters that clip over a fingertip are readily available at drug stores or on the internet. This product

$22.80 fingertip battery-powered pulse oximeter

is available on Amazon for $22.80, and has been reviewed by over 200,000 individuals to date. I bought one for my home and use it whenever a family member has respiratory viral symptoms. If a hospital stocked inexpensive oximeters like this one, doctors and nurses could diagnose low oxygen saturation in their patient(s) within seconds. Would these small portable devices begin to disappear or get lost? Perhaps. A possible solution would be to assign a fingertip pulse oximeter to each physician or nurse who has a need for one, and to expect them not to lose their own personal device. Could continuous fingertip pulse oximetry prevent hypoxic events during in-hospital transports? Yes. A prospective study testing this practice would be easy to do. The connection of fingertip monitors to a hospital’s electronic medical record (EMR) would not be practical, but the purpose of the monitor is to keep patients safe. Whether the monitor readings are recorded in a vital sign readout of the EMR is a less important factor. 

In conclusion, the post-surgical transport of a patient from the operating room to the PACU is a period of patient risk. The routine use of supplemental oxygen and the routine use of pulse oximetry can help anesthesiologists decrease this risk of inadequate breathing and low oxygen saturation during transport. 

CODA: The transport of post-operative patients from the OR to the ICU is a more complex undertaking than transport of patients from the OR to the PACU. The distances between the OR and the ICU are greater than the distance between the OR and the PACU. The ICU may be on a different floor and necessitate an elevator ride. A patient bound for the ICU may be asleep and intubated, which requires the anesthesiologist to ventilate the lungs with an Ambu bag attached to the endotracheal tube during the transfer. The patient may be requiring infusions of vasoactive drugs to maintain blood pressure within safe limits. The anesthesiologist may be supervising the transfusion of blood, platelets, or plasma. Managing all these factors while vigilantly watching the monitor screen while riding in an elevator with a sick patient is a challenging experience. Indeed, the post-surgical transport of a patient from the OR to the ICU requires an anesthesiologist to manage a rolling intensive care unit experience.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

ANESTHESIOLOGY VS. DERMATOLOGY

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 2 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Dermatology and anesthesiology are two medical specialties which offer lifestyle balance. Dermatology is consistently one of the most competitive residencies for graduating medical students. In a ranking of the most competitive medical specialties, dermatology ranked second, trailing only plastic surgery.  Dermatology was also ranked as the number-one specialty in terms of work-lifestyle balance. Dermatology is a high-paying medical specialty with almost no emergencies, weekend duties, or night call. Dermatologists can take weeks off work without losing their entire practice. Dermatologists perform procedures with their hands, including biopsies or the resection of lesions. Dermatologists have important roles treating common problems such as chronic acne or diagnosing life-threatening melanomas. Dermatology clinic is known for short visits and long lists of patients. If a patient has multiple medical comorbidities such as hypertension, heart problems, obesity, or sleep apnea, these issues are usually unrelated to the dermatology consultation. Hypertension, heart problems, obesity, and sleep apnea are problems for the patient’s internal medicine doctor, not for the dermatologist. A career in anesthesiology seems markedly different than a career in dermatology, because anesthesiologists frequently deal with acutely ill patients, middle of the night emergency surgeries, and complex anesthetics for open heart, brain, or neonatal surgeries. But one large subset of anesthesia work closely mimics the lifestyle of dermatology practice. Before you sign up for a lifetime as a dermatologist, consider the subspecialty of ambulatory anesthesiology.

Ambulatory anesthesiology is defined as the administration of anesthetics for outpatient surgical procedures, which are minor procedures which don’t require hospitalization. Most anesthetics in the United States are for ambulatory surgeries. In 2014 there were 11 million outpatient surgeries, which was 52% of the total number of surgeries. Outpatient surgeries include tonsillectomy, knee arthroscopy, shoulder arthroscopy, breast biopsy, hernia repair, rhinoplasty, hand surgery, foot surgery, nasal septoplasty, colonoscopy, and upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. These procedures are low-risk surgeries which don’t disturb a patient’s physiology in any significant way. Ambulatory surgery patients are prescreened to eliminate those with medical problems such as morbid obesity, severe sleep apnea, or unstable cardiac, respiratory, or neurologic diagnoses. An anesthesiologist practicing 100% in an ambulatory surgery center should have zero emergency anesthetics, zero weekend duty, and zero night call. 

The duration of training for an anesthesiologist and a dermatologist is identical. Both specialties require four years of college, four years of medical school, a one-year medical internship, and three years of residency training. For either specialty, if you graduate high school at age 18, you’ll be at least 30 years old when you finish training and are ready to begin your career. A significant amount of deferred gratification is required for both specialties. Your friends who went to work straight out of college will be at least eight years ahead of you in the game of life, and may have already accumulated a mortgage and 1.93 children during the years you’ve been working as a resident physician and memorizing massive quantities of medical knowledge. Anesthesia will never be as safe or predictable as dermatology.  Anesthesia residents are required to manage all forms of cases, including open-heart surgeries, neurosurgeries, trauma surgeries, Cesarean sections, and emergent chest or abdominal surgeries. Major complications are rare in outpatient anesthesia, but if one is inducing general anesthesia, then unexpected complications of airway, breathing, or circulation (the ABCs) can occur.

Both dermatology and anesthesiology are high-paying specialties. See the list below. The average salary for a dermatologist is $438,000 (7thhighest of all specialties), and the average salary for an anesthesiologist is 405,000 (11th highest of all specialties). 

Samuel Shem’s classic medical satire “The House of God,” followed a cadre of burned-out internal medicine residents through their internship year. At the end of the book, the residents reached the conclusion that their best futures were in the NPC—Non-Patient Care—specialties, which numbered six and only six: Rays, Gas, Path, Derm, Eyes, and Psych, that is: radiology, anesthesiology, pathology, dermatology, ophthalmology, and psychiatry. The main character in “The House of God” switched his specialty from internal medicine to psychiatry. In my career I switched from internal medicine to anesthesiology. Anesthesiology is not truly a “Non-Patient Care” specialty. Anesthesiologists very much care for patients every day. A key difference is that anesthesiologists care for each patient for a short and finite time. We don’t have to deal with a patient’s chronic problems over many years, as their internal medicine doctor must do. 

An experienced anesthesiologist may eventually land a fulltime job at an ambulatory surgery center (ASC), and at that point he or she may confine his or her career to a stable weekday life of outpatient surgeries, but this ascension to ambulatory-only anesthesiologist is not common. Most career anesthesiologists who practice in ambulatory surgery centers also continue to practice at a hospital. Most general anesthesiologists need to master both inpatient and outpatient surgeries.

Is it possible to jump directly from the completion of an anesthesia residency to a solely ambulatory practice, thus mimicking the lifestyle of dermatology? In the past, I’d say the answer was no. In recent years the lack of an adequate number of anesthesiologists has created a supply-demand situation in which outpatient surgery centers have insufficient numbers of anesthesiology staff. In some geographic markets, outpatient surgery centers may choose to hire young residents right out of training. I direct you to the recent employment ad below, which promises a salary of $385,000 to $4000,000 per year for an ambulatory anesthesiology job with “No nights, weekends, holidays, trauma, hearts, neuro or OB.”

If you’re interested in a quality lifestyle medical career with regular hours, weekends off, and few emergencies, add the option of ambulatory anesthesiologist to your list of possible choices. But to gain entrance to the Emerald City of ambulatory anesthesiology, you’ll have to walk a Yellow Brick Road through a challenging anesthesia residency first. In all probability, you’ll spend your early career doing some inpatient emergency anesthesia as well. But an eventual career in ambulatory anesthesiology is an outstanding option in which you can anesthetize patients on a  weekday schedule, spend weekends and evenings with your family, and turn the ringer off on your cell phone when you go to sleep at night.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

HOUSE OF THE DRAGON BLOODY CESAREAN SECTION: A DOCTOR’S PERSPECTIVE

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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(SPOILER ALERT – CONTAINS PLOT REVELATIONS FROM HOUSE OF THE DRAGON, SEASON 1 EPISODE 1) Twenty million people tuned in to watch the first week of HBO’s House of the Dragon (the Game of Thrones prequel). The first episode contained a gory scene of an awake Cesarean section. Queen Aemma was in the process of giving birth to a male heir, the baby was presenting feet first (breech), and was stuck,and could not be delivered vaginally. Grand Maester Mellos (a medieval physician-equivalent) offered a potential solution to the king. He said, “During a difficult birth, it sometimes becomes necessary for the father to make an impossible choice. To sacrifice one, or to lose them both. There is a chance that we can save the child. A technique that is taught at the Citadel—which involves cutting directly into the womb to free the infant. We must either act now or leave it with the gods.” Soon after that conversation a knife descended as Mellos cut into the queen’s abdomen while she screamed and the king whispered into her ear that he loved her. The blood loss from the procedure left the queen dead from hemorrhagic shock. On the day following the broadcast, social media erupted at this non-consensual torture waged against the mother.

From a doctor’s perspective, could this fictional scene really have happened centuries ago? It’s a fact that cutting a child out from his mother’s womb was a death sentence for the mother in an era prior to the discovery of anesthesia and prior to the discovery of surgical techniques to control bleeding and infection. In the real history of our world, it’s unlikely any husband or family was offered the choice whether to sacrifice the birthing mother to save the child. Most Cesarean sections were done because the mother was already dead and cutting into the womb was a last gasp measure to save the child’s life. As House of the Dragon depicted, in primitive times there was no way to stop the acute bleeding from Cesarean incisions into the abdomen and the uterus. 

Cutting a child out from the uterus has been called a Cesarean section for centuries. Julius Caesar himself was not born from the procedure, as his mother did not die during his childbirth—she lived until Caesar’s mid-40s.  Cesarean section did have a significant role in a Shakespeare tragedy other than Julius Caesar.  In Shakespeare’s Macbeth the witches’ prophecy was that “. . . none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth.” (Act IV. Scene i) The Scottish nobleman Macduff was “from his mother’s womb/ Untimely ripped.” (Act V. scene vii) That is, Macduff was born by Cesarean section, and not naturally born of woman. Macduff eventually killed Macbeth in battle. 

The first known Cesarean section in which both the mother and child survived was performed in Prague in 1337.  The first successful Cesarean section to be performed in the United States took place in Virginia in 1794. Nonetheless, in Great Britain and Ireland in 1865 the mortality for Cesarean section was 85%. 

The medical advances that enabled nearly all women to survive Cesarean section were: 1) the discovery of sterile surgical practices of handwashing and antisepsis to prevent postoperative infections; 2) the discovery of surgical techniques to stop bleeding; and 3) the discovery of anesthesia.

Sterile surgical procedures began when Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian physician, noted in 1847 that fewer women died from post-surgery fever if surgeons washed their hands. Years later Dr. Louis Pasteur and Dr. Joseph Lister provided evidence to explain germ theory. Dr. Lister’s principles of antiseptic care led the way to asepsis, which was the complete elimination of bacteria during surgery. 

Until the 1870s Cesarean section surgical technique to control bleeding remained crude, and did not include surgical suture closure. In 1882 the German obstetricians Dr. Adolf Kehrer and Dr. Max Sänger developed methods for preventing uterine bleeding by using suture (stitches) to close the wound. 

Prior to the discovery of general anesthesia, sedation for surgery usually included oral alcohol drinks, or opiates derived from poppies. General anesthesia was discovered in October 1846, when Dr. William Morton gave a public demonstration of inhaled ether use at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. One year later, James Simpson, a Scottish obstetrician, administered ether to relieve the pain of childbirth for a woman with an abnormal pelvis. In 1853 Dr. John Snow gave Queen Victoria the inhaled anesthetic chloroform to relieve labor pain during the birth of her eighth child.

A modern Cesarean section is most often done under a spinal or epidural anesthetic. The anesthesiologist injects a local anesthetic drug into the mother’s low back to render her numb from the level of her nipples to her toes. Under this regional anesthetic, a mother can be awake to bond with her infant minutes after the child is born. In emergency circumstances, general anesthesia may be required for Cesarean section. In these situations, a general anesthetic drug such as propofol is injected into the mother’s intravenous line, rendering her unconscious within 20-30 seconds. The anesthesiologist then inserts an endotracheal breathing tube into the mother’s windpipe (trachea) to ensure that oxygen and anesthesia gases are delivered directly and safely into the lungs, and at the same time eliminating the risk of stomach contents regurgitating into the mother’s lungs.

In the United States today, Cesarean deliveries comprise a stunning 1/3 of the total number of births. Attempts to reduce the rate of Cesarean sections have been largely unsuccessful because of the perceived safety of the operation, the medical-legal climate, and maternal requests for Cesarean sections. Cesarean sections carry a higher maternal mortality risk compared with vaginal birth. In a retrospective study of 1.5 million deliveries between 2000 and 2006, the rate of maternal death was 0.2 per 100,000 for vaginal births, and 2.2 per 100,0000 for Cesarean deliveries.  

Cesarean sections in the United States today are typically controlled surgeries, with comfortable mothers and with the father present in the operating room holding the mother’s hand. Expectant mothers can be reassured that because of advances in anesthesia and surgery, the pain, horror, and lethal outcome from a Cesarean section as depicted in the House of the Dragon will not occur in the modern world of medicine.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
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The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
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Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
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THE TOP 11 ANESTHESIA BOOKS

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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There are hundreds of anesthesia textbooks, but which current books are the gold standards for anesthesia knowledge? Should you buy these books, or should you advocate that your hospital purchase them for the medical library? When I was in residency training, I bought earlier editions of many of these textbooks so I could underline and highlight pertinent pages. If you purchased all 11 books in a print version today it would cost $1,643.49. The twenty-first century is a digital age, and if you purchased all 11 books in an ebook version today it would cost slightly less, at $1453.00. I currently have access to these ebooks through Stanford University’s Lane Medical Library, and I read them remotely through the Lane Library’s online website. I’ve come to prefer to read a digital copy over a hardcover book. A digital copy of a textbook is easy to access, easy to search keywords, and it’s convenient to print out excerpts or chapters. A digital textbook collection is portable, and can travel with you in your laptop, your phone, or your tablet. Digital access to all this written expertise can be at your fingertips anywhere, including in the operating room suite. 

The Anesthesia Consultant’s 2022 List of the Top Anesthesia Books includes:

Miller’s Anesthesia, 9th edition, 2019, Editor-in-Chief Michael Gropper. Miller’s has been the comprehensive textbook in our specialty since the first edition in 1981, and it touches on every facet of anesthesiology. All anesthesia providers should have access to the current two-volume 3112-page edition. (ebook $299.99, hardcover $327.16) 

Anesthesiologist’s Manual of Surgical Procedures, 6th edition, 2019, Editor-in-Chief Richard Jaffe. This textbook is organized by surgical subspecialties, and contains a catalog of almost every common surgical procedure in a fashion analogous to an academic “cookbook.” Both surgeons and anesthesiologists analyze each procedure, and include the pertinent details of might be described as an “anesthesia recipe” for each type of case. (ebook $165.29, hardcover $126.17)

The Stanford Emergency Manual. This is a free laminated guide with algorithms describing the diagnosis and treatment of the 26 most common ACLS and non-ACLS perioperative anesthesia emergencies. This is an essential cognitive aide for every operating room, code cart, and anesthetizing location in the world. (Free download) 

Kaplan’s Cardiac Anesthesia: In Cardiac and Noncardiac Surgery, 7th edition, 2016, Editor Joel Kaplan. For decades Dr. Joel Kaplan has been the go-to author regarding cardiac anesthesia as well as the management of cardiac disease in noncardiac surgery. This textbook combines both topics into a single volume. (ebook $201.99, hardcover $270.49)  

A Practical Approach to Regional Anesthesiology and Acute Pain Medicine, 5th edition, 2017, Editors Joseph Neal, De Tran, and Francis Salinas. From its beginning at Seattle’s Virginia Mason Clinic nearly 30 years ago, this textbook remains the top resource in the burgeoning fields of ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia and acute pain medicine. (ebook $106.99, paperback $78.07) 

Chestnut’s Obstetrics Anesthesia: Principles and Practice, 6th edition, 2014, Editor David Chestnut. First published in 1984, this is the leading textbook covering the field of obstetric anesthesiology. (ebook $152.49, hardcover $172.99) 

A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 6th edition, 2018, Editors Charles Cote and Jerrold Lerman. Cote’s book has been the bible for pediatric anesthesiologists for nearly fifty years.  (ebook $146.49, hardcover $203.11)

Stoelting’s Anesthesia and Co-existing Disease, 8th edition, 2021, Editors Roberta Hines and Stephanie Jones. First published in 1983, Stoelting’s Anesthesia and Co-existing Disease is the leading textbook regarding co-existing and uncommon diseases, with a stated goal to “provide a concise description of the pathophysiology of disease states and their medical management that is relevant to the care of the patient in the perioperative period.” (ebook $110.49, hardcover $128.01) 

Complications in Anesthesia, 3rd edition, 2017, Editors Lee Fleisher and Stanley Rosenbaum. First published in 1999, this textbook lists 223 chapters, each detailing a specific problem/complication in perioperative medicine, and includes a step-by-step approach to understanding the pathophysiology and the treatment of each complication. (ebook $85.49, hardcover $114.65)

Miller’s Basics of Anesthesia, 8th edition, 2022, Editor Manual Pardo. (ebook $62.99, hardcover $99.99) First published in 1984, this is a condensed version of the two-volume 3112-page Miller’s Anesthesia tome listed as #1 above. In the 1990s my anesthesia chairman stated, “If a trainee knew everything written in this book, they’d be able to pass the American Board of Anesthesiology written and oral exams.” I would agree. The most important topics of anesthesia practice are well-presented in this 960-page book. 

Anesthesia Equipment: Principles and Applications, 3rd edition, 2020, Editor Jan Ehrenwerth. Every anesthesia professional should understand the machines they utilize. This textbook, was first published in 1993, answers the questions pertaining to anesthesia machines, airway equipment, monitors and other perioperative devices. (ebook $120.79, hardcover $122.85) 

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

THE TOP 20 DOCTORS IN THE HISTORY OF ANESTHESIA

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Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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The first public demonstration of anesthesia, at the Ether Dome in Massachusetts General Hospital

Important advances in the history of anesthesia changed medicine forever. Humans have inhabited the Earth for 200,000 years, yet the discovery of surgical anesthesia was a relatively recent development in the mid-1800s. For thousands of years most surgical procedures were accompanied by severe pain, and the only strategies available to decrease pain were to give patients alcohol or opium until they were stuporous. How did our specialty advance from prescribing patients two shots of whiskey to administering safe modern anesthesia? In chronologic order, my choices for the most important doctors in the history of anesthesia are:

1842. Dr. Crawford Long, Georgia, USA. THE CO-DISCOVERER OF ETHER AS A GENERAL ANESTHETIC.  Dr. Long was an American surgeon recognized for introducing the use of inhaled ether as a general anesthetic. Dr. Long administered ether for the first time on March 30, 1842, to remove a tumor from the neck of patient James Venable. Dr. Long dripped ether on a towel through which Mr. Venable inhaled. Dr. Long performed multiple surgeries using this technique, but did not publish his findings until seven years later in 1849 in The Southern Medical and Surgical Journal. As a result, there is a dispute whether Dr. Crawford Long or Dr. William Morton (below) discovered ether anesthesia first. 

1846. Dr. William Morton, Boston, USA. THE FIRST PUBLIC DEMONSTRATION OF ETHER AS A GENERAL ANESTHETIC.  Dr. Morton performed the first public demonstration of general anesthesia at Harvard’s Massachusetts General Hospital on October 16, 1846. Morton, a local dentist, utilized inhaled ether to anesthetize patient Gilbert Abbott for removal of a tumor on the patient’s neck. According to surgeon John Collins Warren’s account of the operation, “(the patient) said that he had felt as if his neck had been scratched; but subsequently, when inquired of by me, his statement was, that he did not experience pain at the time, although aware that the operation was proceeding.” Morton was unaware of Dr. Crawford Long’s prior work which began four years earlier in 1842. Morton published his accomplishment in the December 1846 issue of Medical Examiner. Comment: Both Dr. Long and Morton deserve recognition for the discovery and eventual application of ether as a general anesthetic drug. The invention of ether changed medical care forever, making painless surgery a reality.

1853.  Dr. Alexander Wood, Scotland. THE DISCOVERY OF THE HYPODERMIC NEEDLE, THE SYRINGE, AND THE INJECTION OF MORPHINE. Dr. Wood invented a hollow needle that fit on the end of a piston-style syringe, and used the syringe and needle combination to successfully treat pain by injections of morphine.  Comment: Most anesthetic drugs today are injected intravenously. Such injections would be impossible without the invention of the syringe.

1885. Dr. William Halsted, Baltimore, USA. THE DISCOVERY OF INJECTABLE COCAINE AND LOCAL ANESTHESIA.  Cocaine was the first local anesthetic discovered. Dr. Halsted of Johns Hopkins University first injected 4% cocaine into a patient’s forearm and concluded that cocaine blocked sensation. The patient’s arm was numb below but not above the point of injection. Halstead became addicted to cocaine, and later to morphine.  Comment: The discovery of local anesthesia gave doctors the power to block pain in specific locations. The improved local anesthetics procaine (Novocain) and lidocaine were later discovered in 1905 and 1948, respectively.

1899. Dr. August Karl Gustav Bier, Germany. THE FIRST TO PERFORM SPINAL ANESTHESIA, AND ALSO THE INVENTOR OF THE BIER BLOCK (AN INTRAVENOUS REGIONAL ANESTHESIA TECHNIQUE FOR HAND OR FOOT SURGERY).  Dr. Bier was a German surgeon before the concept of an anesthesia specialist was invented. He performed the first surgery under spinal anesthesia in 1899. Dr. Bier injected cocaine through a spinal needle, which paralyzed the lower half of his patient. Dr. Bier was able to perform painless ankle surgery. The patient was fully conscious during the operation. Comment: Dr. Bier was the father of regional anesthesia, an important tool in the repertoire of a modern anesthesiologist.

Dr. Nikolai Korotkov

1905. Dr. Nikolai Korotkov, Russia. THE DISCOVERY OF THE MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE BY BLOOD PRESSURE CUFF. Dr. Korotkov described the sounds produced during auscultation with a stethoscope over a distal portion of an artery as a blood pressure cuff was deflated. These Korotkoff sounds resulted in an accurate determination of systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Comment: Anesthesiologists monitor patients repeatedly during every surgery. A patient’s vital signs are the heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and temperature. It would be impossible to administer safe anesthesia without blood pressure measurement. Low blood pressures may be evidence of anesthetic overdose, excessive bleeding, or heart dysfunction. High blood pressures may be evidence of inadequate anesthetic depth or uncontrolled hypertension.

The cuffed endotracheal tube
Dr. Aurthur Guedel

1932. Dr. Arthur Guedel, Wisconsin, USA. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CUFFED ENDOTRACHEAL BREATHING TUBE. Dr. Guedel added an inflatable cuff to the distal end of a breathing tube to be inserted into a patient’s trachea. This advance allowed the use of positive-pressure ventilation into a patient’s lungs. Comment: Surgery within the abdomen and chest would be impossible without controlling the airway and breathing with a tube in the trachea. Advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) of Airway-Breathing-Circulation depends on the insertion of a cuffed endotracheal tube.

1927. Dr. Ralph Waters, University of Wisconsin, USA. THE FIRST ANESTHESIA RESIDENCY PROGRAM. Before Dr. Waters, a variety of individuals administered anesthesia. He developed the first department of anesthesia at a medical school, and established the first resident training program in anesthesia. He is considered the “father of academic anesthesia.” Dr. Waters also introduced the anesthetic gas cyclopropane into clinical use, the carbon dioxide absorption method on the anesthesia machine, and endobronchial anesthesia for thoracic surgery. Comment: Every university anesthesia residency program owes a debt to the legacy of Ralph Waters. 

Dr. John Lundy

1934. Dr. John Lundy, Mayo Clinic, Minnesota, USA. THE INTRODUCTION OF INTRAVENOUS THIOPENTAL AND INJECTABLE BARBITURATES.  Dr. Lundy of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota introduced the intravenous anesthetic sodium thiopental into medical practice. In 1934, Dr. Ernest Volwiler and Dr. Donnalee Tabern synthesized Pentothal, the first intravenous general anesthetic. Pentothal was first used in humans on 8 March 1934 by Dr. Ralph Waters. Three months later, Dr. John Lundy started clinical trials of thiopental at the Mayo Clinic at the request of Abbott Laboratories. Injecting Pentothal provided a more pleasant induction of anesthesia than inhaling pungent ether. Comment: This was a huge breakthrough. Almost every modern anesthetic begins with the intravenous injection of an anesthetic drug. (Propofol has now replaced Pentothal.)

1941, Dr. Robert Miller, Texas, USA. INVENTION OF THE MILLER INTUBATING LARYNGOSCOPE BLADE. The Miller straight laryngoscope blade was used to elevate the epiglottis and enabled anesthesiologists to directly view the vocal cords and the laryngeal opening in an anesthetized patient, so they could directly place an endotracheal breathing tube into the trachea. Comment: The Miller straight laryngoscope blade is the second most common blade used for direct laryngoscopy today, and my personal favorite.

Dr. Harold Griffith

1942. Dr. Harold Griffith, Montreal, Canada. THE DISCOVERY OF CURARE, THE FIRST INJECTABLE MUSCLE RELAXANT.  Dr. Griffith injected the paralyzing drug curare to 25 patients during cyclopropane general anesthesia to induce muscular relaxation. Although the existence of curare was known for many years—it was used on poison arrows by South American Indians—it was not used in surgery to deliberately cause muscle relaxation until this time. Comment: Paralyzing drugs are necessary to enable the easy insertion of endotracheal tubes into anesthetized patients, and paralysis is also essential for many abdominal and chest surgeries.

1943, Dr. Robert Macintosh, England.  INVENTION OF THE MACINTOSH INTUBATING LARYNGOSCOPE BLADE. The Macintosh curved laryngoscope blade enabled anesthesiologists to indirectly elevate the epiglottis and view the vocal cords and the laryngeal opening in an anesthetized patient, so they could directly place an endotracheal breathing tube into the trachea. Comment: The Macintosh curved laryngoscope blade is the most common blade used for direct laryngoscopy today.

ventilating the lungs by bag-ventilation via a tracheostomy

1953. Dr. Bjorn Ibsen, Denmark. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST INTENSIVE CARE UNIT (ICU).  The origin of the ICU followed the Copenhagen polio epidemic of 1952, which caused respiratory failure in hundreds of patients. Hundreds of patients required ventilation for weeks. Dr. Ibsen organized over a thousand medical students who positive-pressure-ventilated the lungs of these patients by bag-ventilation via tracheostomies. This gathering uniting of physicians and medical students to manage sick patients led to Ibsen being considered the “father of intensive care.” Comment: In the ICU, the Airway-Breathing-Circulation management perfected in the operating room was extended to critically ill patients who were not undergoing surgery.

1956. Dr. Charles Suckling. THE DISCOVERY OF HALOTHANE, THE FIRST MODERN INHALED ANESTHETIC. British chemist Charles Suckling synthesized the inhaled anesthetic halothane. Halothane had significant advantages over ether or cyclopropane. Halothane had a more pleasant odor, a higher potency, faster onset, and was nonflammable. Halothane gradually replaced older anesthetic vapors and achieved worldwide acceptance. Comment: Halothane was the forerunner of our modern inhaled anesthetics isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane. These drugs have faster onset and offset times, cause less nausea, and are not explosive like ether was. The discovery of halothane changed inhalation anesthesia forever.

Dr. John Severinghaus and the first blood gas analyzer

1957. Dr. John Severinghaus, UCSF, California, USA. THE FIRST MEASUREMENT OF ACID/BASE CHEMISTRY OF HUMAN BLOOD.  Dr. Severinghaus developed the first blood gas analyzer, now on display in the Smithsonian Museum, which measured the pH, pCO2, and pO2 in a sample of arterial blood. https://www.mlo-online.com/continuing-education/article/13008466/blood-gas-testing-a-brief-history-and-new-regulatory-developments  He also developed the initial methods for measuring end-tidal gas concentrations in anesthetized patients in the mid-1970s, and he worked with Dr. Eger (below) on the discovery of minimum alveolar concentration of inhaled anesthetics. He died in 2021 at the age of 99 years. Comment: Measuring blood gases in an acutely ill patient is a cornerstone of all ER and ICU medicine. Measuring blood gases is also routine in cardiac, neurosurgical, and trauma anesthesia, and the measurement of end-tidal gas concentration is a standard in general anesthetics today.

1960s. Dr. Ted Eger, UCSF, California, USA. DISCOVERY OF THE MINIMUM ALVEOLAR CONCENTRATION OF POTENT INHALED ANESTHETICS. Dr. Eger defined the science of inhaled anesthesia uptake and concentration when he characterized the Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC) of every gaseous anesthesia drug. Per Dr. Eger’s New York Times obituary when he died at the age of 86 in 2017, he was “a leader in the development of a now universally used technique to determine the proper dose of anesthetic gas administered in operating rooms.” Comment: Almost every general anesthetic today includes some form of an inhaled anesthetic such as sevoflurane, desflurane, or nitrous oxide. Dr. Eger’s work defined the principles of how much gas to administer to each patient.

A pulse oximeter probe
Dr. William New

1983. Dr. William New, Stanford University, California, USA. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PULSE OXIMETRY MONITORING. The Nellcor pulse oximeter, co-developed by Stanford anesthesiologist Dr. William New, was the first commercially available device to measure the oxygen saturation in a patient’s bloodstream. The Nellcor pulse oximeter had the unique feature of lowering the audible pitch of the pulse tone as the oxygen saturation dropped, giving anesthesiologists an audible early warning that their patient’s heart and brain were in danger of low oxygen levels. Comment: The Nellcor changed patient monitoring forever. Oxygen saturation is now monitored before, during, and after every surgery. Prior to Nellcor monitoring, the first sign of low oxygen levels was often a cardiac arrest. Following the invention of the Nellcor, oxygen saturation became the fifth vital sign, along with pulse rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and temperature.

1987. Dr. Archie Brain, England. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST COMMERCIAL LARYNGEAL MASK AIRWAY. The Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA) replaced the endotracheal tube as the airway device for many general anesthetics. The LMA can be inserted blindly into a patient’s mouth, does not require the patient to be paralyzed for insertion, is an easy method for securing the airway, and does not require a laryngoscope. The LMA was introduced to the United States market in 1992. Comment: The LMA revolutionized the general anesthetic technique for most extremity surgeries, some head and neck surgeries, and is used as a rescue technique in the American Society of Anesthesiologists Difficult Airway Algorithm (see below).

1990s. Dr. Jonathan Benumof, UCSD, San Diego, California, USA.  DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFICULT AIRWAY ALGORITHM. Dr. Benumof was the main originator of the American Society of Anesthesiologists Difficulty Airway Algorithm, first published in 1996. The Difficult Airway Algorithm describes pathways to safe airway management, and its application has saved countless lives. Comment: The Difficult Airway Algorithm is the standard of care for managing patients who are difficult to intubate and/or oxygenate. All anesthesiology providers commit the algorithm to memory, because when airway disasters occur there is simply no time for them to Google the correct order of rescue procedures.

The GlideScopy
Dr. John Pacey

2001. Dr. John Pacey, vascular and general surgeon, University of British Columbia, Canada. INVENTION OF THE GLIDESCOPE, THE WORLD’S FIRST VIDEOLARYNGOSCOPE. Dr. Pacey introduced the GlideScope (Verathon) as the first commercially available video laryngoscope in 2001. The GlideScope combined two new technologies: the video laryngoscope and the hyper-angulated laryngoscope blade, and enabling doctors and CRNAs to “see around the corner” of the airway to place endotracheal tubes into the trachea of  patients with difficult airways. Comment: Note that Dr. Pacey and several other doctors on this Top 20 List invented improvements in airway management. Failed airway management remains the most dreaded complication in anesthesia practice, as it can lead to anoxic brain damage. We are thankful to Drs. Arthur Guedel, Ralph Waters, Robert Miller, Robert Macintosh, Archie Brain, Jon Benumof, and John Pacey, whose inventions made intubation of the difficult airway . . . less difficult. 

These are the top 20 doctors who made major advances in the history of anesthesia as I see them. Who will be the next successful inventor to advance our specialty? At Stanford University our department is titled the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine. A key question for the future of Anesthesiology is “How do anesthetics work on the brain?” A key question for the future of Pain Medicine is “How can we more effectively block pain?” In 2016 an estimated 20.4% of the adults in the United States had chronic pain, and the relief of pain remains a key unsolved problem. Anesthesiologists or scientists who develop answers to these questions will likely join The Top Doctors in the History of Anesthesia list.

AUTHOR’S NOTE: The ultimate chronicle of anesthesia history is The Wondrous Story of Anesthesia, edited by Dr. Ted Eger, Dr. Laurence Saidman, and Dr. Rod Westhorpe. It’s available on Amazon and deserves to be on the bookshelf of every medical library in the world.

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM

REMIMAZOLAM: NEW WONDER ANESTHETIC DRUG OR MEDICAL WHITE ELEPHANT?

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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In July 2020 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the intravenous benzodiazepine remimazolam (Byfavo, Acacia Pharma) for use in sedation for procedures of 30 minutes or less. Will anyone utilize this new drug, or is it an expensive addition to our arsenal with few significant advantages over current agents?

Remimazolam differs from midazolam (Versed), the current most commonly used IV benzodiazepine, in that remimazolam is rapidly converted to an inactive metabolite by tissue esterases, resulting in an ultra-short onset/offset profile. Remimazolam is marketed as a powder which must be reconstituted into a liquid within its vial prior to administration.

remimazolam
propofol

For use in procedural sedation, remimazolam will not replace Versed, but rather will aim to replace propofol. The proposed advantages of remimazolam over propofol include:

  1. Remimazolam can be completely reversed by the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil (Romazicon) whereas there is no reversal agent or antagonist for propofol. The only way to end the sedative effects of propofol is for an anesthesia professional to support the airway, breathing, and circulation of the patient until the drug effects of propofol wear off in time.
  2. Remimazolam has minimal cardiac or respiratory depression. Sicker ASA III and IV patients maintain their breathing and circulation status while under remimazolam sedation.
  3. There is no accumulative effect of remimazolam over time. Its elimination by an esterase does not slow during lengthy administration of remimazolam, as in the prolonged sedation of an intensive care unit (ICU) patient on a ventilator.
  4. There is no burning sensation upon injecting remimazolam into a patient’s intravenous line as there is with propofol.
  5. A non-anesthesia-professional can administer remimazolam, whereas an anesthesia professional/airway expert must administer and monitor propofol administration.

Are these advantages important? Items 1 – 5 are discussed as follows:

  1. Non-anesthesiologists can reverse the effects of remimazolam with flumazenil if they overdose a patient, but this advantage is less important for anesthesia professionals. Anesthesiologists can manage the airway of a patient over-sedated with a benzodiazepine without need to administer a reversal agent. I’ve never administered a dose of flumazenil in my entire career, nor have most of my anesthesia colleagues. 
  2. Propofol has cardiac and respiratory depression, but in most cases these effects are minimal. Per the PDR (Physician’s Digital Reference), patients with compromised myocardial function, intravascular volume depletion, or abnormally low vascular tone (e.g. septic patients) are more susceptible to hypotension. When an anesthesiologist is present these risks are routinely managed. 
  3. For a long operating room anesthesia case (e.g. of 8 – 10  hours duration), there is no clinically significant accumulation of propofol in the bloodstream. Propofol Infusion Syndrome (PRIS), which can be potentially fatal, is a risk with prolonged propofol sedation in the ICU (See ICU Sedation below).
  4. The burning sensation upon injecting propofol can be blunted by intravenous lidocaine. A 2016 meta-analysis showed that both lidocaine pretreatment and mixing lidocaine with the propofol were effective in reducing pain on propofol injection. In addition, a preanesthetic dose of Versed prevents a patient from remembering any burning sensation from a propofol injection that follows. 
  5. The most important advantage of remimazolam is that non-anesthesiologists can safely administer remimazolam. Propofol administration requires an experienced clinician, e.g. either an anesthesiologist, a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA), or an emergency medicine physician. Per the American Society of Anesthesiologists: “The practitioner administering propofol for sedation/anesthesia should, at a minimum, have the education and training to identify and manage the airway and cardiovascular changes which occur in a patient who enters a state of general anesthesia.” 

The disadvantages of remimazolam compared to propofol include:

  1. Expense. The cost of a 20 ml (200 mg) vial of propofol is $9.20. The cost of a 20 mg vial of powdered remimazolam is $41.67. 
  2. Remimazolam is sold as a powder and must be reconstituted into a liquid before it can be injected intravenously.

Remimazolam is currently approved as an anesthesia drug in Japan and South Korea, for intensive care unit sedation in Belgium, but only for procedural sedation in the United States, China, and Europe. In total, there are four possible applications for remimazolam. Let’s examine the pros and cons of using remimazolam in these four applications:

  1. Preoperative sedation. Since midazolam (Versed) was approved in 1982, a standard anesthesia practice has included a 2 mg dose of  Versed prior to surgery to calm a patient’s anxiety. In the 1980s my anesthesia chairman at Stanford received a letter from a postoperative patient in which she complained of being awake and very anxious in the operating room prior to the anesthetic for her breast cancer surgery. Our chairman lectured to us, “Do you know many patients are nervous prior to their anesthesia and surgery? Every one of them. We have an excellent drug for relieving preoperative anxiety, and that drug is Versed. Use it! Give your patient a dose of Versed before they enter the operating room. There are few significant side effects of one dose of Versed. Use it!” Will remimazolam replace Versed for this application? No. There is no advantage of the new, shorter acting, more expensive remimazolam over Versed for preoperative sedation.
  2. Sedation for short procedures. This is the FDA-approved application for remimazolam in the United States. An example procedure would be a colonoscopy. Will remimazolam be widely used for colonoscopies in the near future? No, I doubt it. The cost increase is the main disadvantage. See the typical drug acquisition costs for three alternative sedation recipes for colonoscopy below:

            $18.40 for 400 mg of propofol; or 

$5.17 for fentanyl+Versed ($4.35 dollars for 6 mg of Versed  plus $0.82 for 200 micrograms of fentanyl); or

$41.67 for 20 mg of remimazolam. 

The increased cost per case is $23.27 for remimazolam over propofol. 

The increased cost per case is $36.50 for remimazolam over fentanyl+Versed.

If a busy endoscopy center does 100 colonoscopies cases per week, the cost increase is $2327 per week for remimazolam over propofol, or $3650 per week for remimazolam over fentanyl+Versed. These are a prohibitive cost increases with no clear added benefits. The only way remimazolam could result in cheaper sedation costs would be if a healthcare system was looking to eliminating the cost of paying for an anesthesia provider for these procedures. The pairing of remimazolam+gastroenterologist sedation rather than propofol+anesthesiologist sedation could afford significant cost savings for a healthcare system.

3. Total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA). TIVA could include a continuous infusion of the ultra-short-acting narcotic remifentanil plus a continuous infusion of the ultra-short-acting remimazolam. An alleged advantage of this technique could be the fast offset time of these two TIVA anesthetic agents. I doubt this technique will gain market share. It’s far easier to turn on the knob of a sevoflurane vaporizer than to load and manage two TIVA-syringe pumps. As well, the added expense of a prolonged infusion of remimazolam will be prohibitive.

4. ICU sedation. Remimazolam has the advantage of ongoing first-degree elimination, meaning that no matter how long the drug is infused, it will always have reliable elimination by esterase and will not accumulate in the plasma. Prolonged ICU sedation with propofol can lead to the Propofol Infusion Syndrome (PRIS). PRIS occurs predominantly in patients receiving high doses of propofol for a prolonged period. Risk factors for the development of PRIS include a critical illness such as sepsis, head trauma, use of vasopressors, and carbohydrate depletion (liver disease, starvation, or malnutrition). PRIS commonly presents as a high anion gap metabolic acidosis, with rhabdomyolysis, hyperkalemia, acute kidney injury, elevated liver enzymes, and decreased cardiac output. Because of the risk of PRIS,  the duration of propofol infusion administration should not exceed 48 hours and the administered dose should not be higher than 4 mg/kg/hour.

This potential advantage of remimazolam over propofol will be offset by the increased expense of hours or days of remimazolam utilization in an ICU sedation situation. ICU sedation with fentanyl and older benzodiazepines such as Ativan will have the advantage of a lower cost. 

In the hands of an anesthesiologist, propofol is an elegant and almost ideal intravenous sedative, with the advantages of rapid onset, rapid offset, inexpensive generic pricing, minimal cardiovascular/respiratory depression, and lack of nausea. Propofol administration does carry the risks of upper airway obstruction, hypoventilation, and low oxygen saturation, but when an anesthesiologist is present these risks are minimal. 

If a healthcare organization doesn’t want to employ an anesthesiologist or a CRNA for a case which requires procedural sedation, then remimazolam may be an excellent sedative choice. Will gastroenterologists prefer to sedate patients with remimazolam plus fentanyl without an anesthesiologist? Or will they prefer to have an anesthesiologist present to administer propofol? Expect gastroenterologists to prefer the latter, because they are not only off-loading the task of sedating the patient, they are also off-loading the risks of managing the patient’s medical co-morbidities, which can be significant if a patient has lung disease, cardiac disease, morbid obesity, or obstructive sleep apnea.

The remimazolam story suggests one of my favorite anecdotes: A former Stanford Chairman of Anesthesiology and friend of mine who left the university in 2006 to become a pharmaceutical company executive, first at Novartis and then at AstraZeneca. Ten years ago, when I asked him what new anesthesia drugs were in the pipeline, he answered, “None, and there probably will be very few new ones. The drugs you have now are inexpensive generic drugs, and they work very well. The research and development costs to bring a new anesthetic drug to market are prohibitively expensive, and unless that new drug is markedly better, it will not push the inexpensive generic drugs out of use.”

Remimazolam will capture a very small market in the United States. Until remimazolam becomes an inexpensive generic drug, I see it as a medical white elephant rather than a wonderful anesthetic advance.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
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READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

ROBOTIC ANESTHESIA 

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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How soon will we see robotic anesthesia in our hospitals and surgery centers? In the past three decades the high-tech revolution introduced the internet, the laptop computer, the iPhone, Google, and global positioning satellites. Most of these discoveries originated in Silicon Valley, just miles outside Stanford University Hospital where I’ve been working for the past 42 years. Our medical world inside the hospital has changed more slowly. We’ve seen advances in noninvasive surgery, fiberoptic scopes, transplantation science, cancer therapeutics, and mega healthcare delivery companies. But what’s new in anesthesia the last 30 years? Relatively little. The Glidescope, sugammadex, ultrasound-guided blocks, and the time-consuming Electronic Medical Record arrived, but we typically administer the same medications, use the same airway tubes, and watch the same vital signs monitors as we did in the 1990s. 

Why have there been no new anesthetics? Let me tell you a story: A former Stanford Chairman of Anesthesiology and friend of mine left the university in 2006 to become a pharmaceutical company executive, first at Novartis and then at AstraZeneca. Ten years ago, when I asked him what new anesthesia drugs were in the pipeline, he answered, “None, and there probably will be very few new ones. The drugs you have now are inexpensive generic drugs, and they work very well. The research and development costs to bring a new anesthetic drug to market are prohibitively expensive, and unless that new drug is markedly better, it will not push the inexpensive generic drugs out of use.”

Is the same true for anesthesia devices? Are proposed anesthetic robots too expensive to design, test, and manufacture? Can they be brought to market to assist current anesthesia providers? Can they be brought to market to replace any anesthesia providers? Keep these economic questions in mind as we review the current science of robotic anesthesia.

vanished and vanishing jobs

Jobs have already disappeared in many industries. ATMs replaced bank tellers. Automated garbage trucks replaced garbage men. In the near future automated cars and trucks will replace drivers. In medicine, computerized artificial intelligence for the analysis of digital images is superior to the human eye, placing the jobs of radiologists, pathologists, and dermatologists in peril. 

Will we live to see anesthesiologists replaced by technology? The following three pictures depict fictional anesthesia robots:

fictional medical robots

But this is what real anesthesia robots look like:

real anesthesia robots

An outline of the types of robotic anesthesia is as follows:

  1. PHARMACOLOGIC ROBOTS
  2. MECHANICAL ROBOTS PERFORMING PROCEDURES
  3. DECISION SUPPORT ROBOTS

  1. PHARMACOLOGIC ROBOTS:

In 2012 a United States national marketing firm contacted me to seek my opinion regarding an automated device to infuse propofol. The device was the Sedasys®-Computer-Assisted Personalized Sedation System, developed by Johnson and Johnson/Ethicon. The system incorporated an automated propofol infusion device, along with standard ASA monitors, including end-tidal CO2, into a device to be used to provide conscious sedation for GI endoscopy.

The SEDASYS system

The Sedasys unit infused an initial dose of propofol (typically 30 – 50 mg in young patients) over 3 minutes, and then began a maintenance infusion of propofol at a pre-programmed rate (usually 50 mcg/kg/min).  If the monitors detected signs of over-sedation, that is, falling oxygen saturation, depressed respiratory rate, or a failure of the end-tidal CO2 curve, then the propofol infusion was stopped automatically.  In addition, the machine talked to the patient, and at intervals asked the patient to squeeze a hand-held gripper device.  If the patient was non-responsive and did not squeeze, the propofol infusion was automatically stopped.

The planned strategy was to have gastroenterologists complete a weekend educational course to learn: that Sedasys was not appropriate if the patient is ASA 3 or 4 or had severe medical problems; that Sedasys was not appropriate if the patient had risk factors such as morbid obesity, a difficult airway, or sleep apnea; and gastroenterologists were taught the airway skills of chin lift, jaw thrust, oral airway use, nasal airway use, and bag-mask ventilation. 

I did not recommend the device be FDA-approved, as I saw the potential of inappropriate patients with obesity or sleep apnea slipping through the screening process, as well as the risk that an over-sedated patient could lose their airway and the gastroenterologist would not be able to rescue them, seeing as propofol has no reversal agent. 

With only one prospective clinical trial, the United States Food and Drug Administration did approve the device in 2013. There was limited clinical use of Sedasys, and Ethicon announced in March 2016 that it was pulling Sedasys from the market. 

The failure of Sedasys was attributed to three factors:

  1. If a patient became too “light” during a procedure, the Sedasys system was not capable of increasing the depth of the sedation.
  2. Both patients and endoscopists expected deep general anesthesia, not moderate sedation. 
  3. Gastroenterologists were ill-equipped to shoulder the responsibility of general anesthesia and airway management. 

From the failure of Sedasys it was clear that further refinement in technology and drug use was needed. That refinement was the development of closed-loop devices. A closed-loop control system is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that automatically regulates a process variable to a desired state or set point without human interaction. The cruise-control on your automobile is an example of closed-loop feedback control of driving speed.

In anesthesia, closed-loop devices can infuse the medications propofol and remifentanil, with the rate of the infusions guided by a bispectral (BIS) monitor of EEG (electroencephalography) activity.  Propofol is an ultra-short-acting hypnotic drug, and remifentanil is an ultra-short-acting narcotic. Administered together, these drugs induce total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA).

A closed-loop system can infuse these two drugs automatically. A BIS monitor calculates a score between 0 and 100 for the patient’s level of unconsciousness, with a score of 100 corresponding to wide awake and 0 corresponding to a flat EEG. A score of 40 – 60 is considered an optimal amount of anesthesia depth. A computer controls the infusion rates of two automated infusion pumps containing propofol and remifentanil. The infusion rates depend on whether the measured BIS score is higher or lower than the 40- 60 range. Researchers in Vancouver, Canada expanded this technology into a device called the iControl-RP, where the initials RP stand for remifentanil and propofol. In addition to the BIS monitor, the iControl-RP monitored the vital signs of blood oxygen level, heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure to determine how much anesthesia to deliver.

iControl-RP robot

In a single-blind randomized study published in Anesthesiology in 2015, 42 patients were randomized to the closed-loop iControl-RP group or to a manual group. The results showed the percentage of time with BIS40-60 was greater in the closed-loop group (87%) vs. the manual group (72%). The number of perioperative adverse events and the length of stay in the postanesthesia care unit were similar. The conclusion of the study was that automated control of hypnosis and analgesia guided by the BIS was clinically feasible.

This study led to an article in the The Washington Post in 2015,  in which one of the machine’s co-developers, Dr. Mark Ansermino said, “We are convinced the machine can do better than human anesthesiologists.” The device had been used on 250 patients at that time. The iControl-RP team struggled to find a corporate backer for its project. Dr. Ansermino told The Washington Post, “Most big companies view this as too risky.” He believed a device like this was inevitable. “I think eventually this will happen,” Ansermino said, “whether we like it or not.”

A second pharmacologic robot named McSleepy used three syringe pumps to control the three components of general anesthesia (hypnosis, analgesia, and neuromuscular block) in an automated closed-loop anesthesia drug delivery system. Each component had specific monitoring: BIS; AnalgoScore (an-AL-go-score = a pain score derived from the heart rate and mean arterial pressure) which was used as the control variable to titrate the effective dose of remifentanil; and the train of four (TOF), which was a measure of the twitch strength of a muscle when its peripheral nerve was electrically stimulated.

McSleepy robot

A 2013 study in the British Journal of Anaesthesia  looked at 186 patients managed by McSleepy, in which the McSleepy system showed better control of hypnosis than manually administered anesthesia (see graphs below). 

The control of depth of anesthesia under McSleepy (blue) or manual (green)

The McSleepy system also showed faster extubation times than manually administered anaesthesia. 

A second McSleepy study in the British Journal of Anaesthesia in 2013 showed an application in telemedicine.  The remote control of general anesthetics was successfully performed between two different countries (Canada and Italy). Twenty patients underwent elective thyroid surgeries, with a master-computer in Montreal and a slave-computer in Pisa, demonstrating the feasibility of remote telemedicine control of anesthesia administration.

II.  MECHANICAL ANESTHESIA ROBOTS

Ma’s mask ventilation robot

The first example is a machine designed to provide mask ventilation, as described in the paper “Novel Anesthesia Airway Management Robot for Robot Assisted Non-invasive Positive Pressure Mask Ventilation,” Published by Dr. Ma et al, from China. Ma designed a robot equipped with two snake arms and a mask-fastening mechanism to facilitate trachea airway management for anesthesia. (PIC) The two snake arms were designed to lift a patient’s jaw. The mask-fastening mechanism was used to fasten and hold the mask onto a patient’s face. A joystick control unit managed both the lifting and fastening force. To date this system has not been used on humans, but the device was proposed as a method to perform non-invasive mask positive pressure ventilation via a robotic system.

The Kepler Intubating System

In 2012 Dr. Hemmerling at McGill University in Montreal published a paper in Current Opinions in Anaesthesiology, describing the Kepler Intubation System. The Kepler Intubation System consisted of a remote-control joystick and intubation cockpit, linked to a standard videolaryngoscope via a robotic arm. (PIC) Ninety intubations were performed on a mannequin with this device. The first group of 30 intubations was performed with the operator in direct view of the mannequin. The second group of 30 intubations was performed with the operator unable to see the mannequin. The third group of 30 intubations were performed via semiautomated intubations during which the robotic system replayed a tracing of a previously recorded intubation maneuver. All intubations were successful on the first attempt, with the average intubation times between 41 and 51 seconds for all three groups. The study concluded that a robotic intubation system can complete successful remote intubation within 40 to 60 seconds.

The Magellan Nerve Block System

In 2013 Dr. Hemmerling published the study “First Robotic Ultrasound-Guided Nerve Blocks in Humans Using the Magellan System” in Anesthesia & Analgesia. The Magellan system consisted of three main components: a joystick, a robotic arm, and a software control system. After localization of the sciatic nerve by ultrasound, 35 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% was injected by the robot. Thirteen patients were enrolled. The nerve blocks were successful in all patients. The nerve performance time was 164 seconds by the robotic system, and 189 seconds by a human practitioner. The Magellan System was the first robotic ultrasound-guided nerve block system tested on humans.  

III.  DECISION SUPPORT ROBOTS

A decision-support robot can recognize a crucial clinical situation that requires human intervention and, when allowed by the attending clinician, may administer treatment. It seems likely that cognitive robots which follow algorithms can increase patient safety.

In August 2021 Dr. Alexandre Joosten, an anesthesia professor in Brussels, Belgium and Paris, France, published “Computer-assisted Individualized Hemodynamic Management Reduces Intraoperative Hypotension in Intermediate- and High-risk Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Trial” in Anesthesiology.  This study tested the hypothesis that computer-assisted hemodynamic management could reduce intraoperative low blood pressure in patients undergoing intermediate- to high-risk surgery. This prospective randomized single-blinded study included 38 patients undergoing abdominal or orthopedic surgery. All patients had an indwelling radial arterial catheter to monitor blood pressure continuously. A closed-loop system titrated a norepinephrine infusion based on the blood pressure, and a second separate decision support system infused mini-fluid challenges when low blood pressures were recorded. Results showed the time of intraoperative hypotension was 1.2% in the computer-assisted group compared to 21.5% in the manually adjusted goal-directed therapy group (P < 0.001). The incidence of minor postoperative complications was the same between groups (42 vs. 58%; P = 0.330). The mean stroke volume index and cardiac index were both significantly higher in the computer-assisted group than in the manually adjusted goal-directed therapy group (P < 0.001). The study’s conclusion was that this closed-loop system resulted in a significant decrease in the percentage of intraoperative time with a low mean arterial pressure.

VOICE-ACTIVATED DEVICES

Voice-activated devices are gaining traction in healthcare. The story “Amazon’s Alexa Is Now a Healthcare Provider” was published by Medscape on February 17, 2022.

Alexa at bedside

The article described how thousands of Alexa-enabled devices are in use in hundreds of hospitals in America. Amazon’s Alexa functions as a digital personal assistant whose voice-powered innovation connects patients with their healthcare team members. Patients who are confined to bed can use their voice to communicate directly to a nurse’s smartphone. An Alexa device is positioned near the bed at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, making it easy to call for nursing help. (PIC) Alexa can also connect healthcare providers to their patients. Doctors or nurses can appear virtually in a patient’s room on the Alexa Show’s video screen and assess the needs of that patient. I expect voice-activation to link healthcare providers with medical robots in the future.

PROBLEMS WITH ROBOTS REPLACING ANESTHESIA

The medical publications referenced above demonstrate that robotic anesthesia devices exist, yet none of them are in common use at this time. The current and proposed robotic devices are only small steps toward replacing anesthesiologists, because anesthetizing patients requires far more expertise than merely titrating drug levels or performing a solitary mechanical procedure. 

Anesthesia management consists of a wide variety of skills:

  • preoperative assessment of a patient’s medical problems 
  • successful mask ventilation of an unconscious patient (in most cases) followed by placement of an airway tube
  • diagnosis and treatment of any medical complication that occurs as a result of the anesthesia or the surgical procedure
  • removal of the airway tube at the conclusion of most surgeries, and 
  • the diagnosis and treatment of postoperative medical complications

Successful robotic anesthesia devices may eventually eliminate the repetitive aspects of anesthesia management. You may see robots assisting anesthesia providers in the coming decades, depending on the economic viability of the technology. 

Will the intrusion of a robot into anesthesia care be a welcome event? When you’re a patient, do you desire a caring, empathetic human attending to you, or do you desire an algorithm? 

Or in the future, will you desire both?

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

PRESIDENT BIDEN’S COLONOSCOPY ANESTHESIA

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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Three days ago, I was giving anesthesia for six consecutive colonoscopy patients. Following my first case, I checked my phone and discovered that the President of the United States Joe Biden was having a colonoscopy at Walter Reed Medical Center that very morning. The headlines stated that for the first time, temporary acting presidential power was being turned over to a woman, Vice President Kamala Harris, during the time of President Biden’s colonoscopy anesthesia.

I mentioned this to the gastroenterologist I was working with that day, and he asked, “How long do you think he will be unable to make decisions as the President? We tell our patients not to drive the rest of the day, and not to make any important life decisions after their general anesthetic. Biden has the most difficult and most important job on Earth. When can he return to duty?”

I answered, “My guess is that he’ll have the same propofol anesthetic we’re administering today. The procedure will last thirty minutes, he’ll begin to awaken five minutes after the propofol is discontinued, and within an hour he’ll feel clear-headed.” The gastroenterologist was dubious that the leader of the free world would be alert enough to resume power only one hour after receiving propofol. Joseph Biden was one day short of his 79th birthday when the colonoscopy took place. Later that morning the news services reported that the President had transferred presidential powers to Kamala Harris at 10:10 a.m. EST and resumed his presidential powers at 11:35 a.m., a mere 1 hour and 25 minutes later. 

The evening after the colonoscopy, comedian Colin Jost of Saturday Night Live joked about Biden’s colonoscopy.  During Weekend Update, Jost reported on Biden’s resumption of all his presidential responsibilities immediately following the colonoscopy, and noted that Biden had just turned 79. “Half the country already thinks he’s senile,” Jost said. “You can’t drop all that on him the second he comes out of the gas.”

A note from an anesthesiologist to the comedy writers: No one uses “gas” for anesthesia for a colonoscopy. The anesthetic is solely from intravenous (IV) drug(s).

I have no specific knowledge of what anesthetic drug regimen the President received for his colonoscopy, but more likely than not he received propofol. Anesthesia for colonoscopy is typically administered so that patients have no awareness during this procedure, a procedure which does not involve surgical pain, but rather involves the uncomfortable entrance of a 66-inch-long flexible hose, one-half-inch in diameter, into their anus, rectum, and colon. 

For the quickest recovery after colonoscopy, one option is no anesthesia at all. Very few patients sign up for a colonoscopy without any intravenous anesthesia. The press reports about Biden’s colonoscopy stated that he had anesthesia, so let’s discount the option that he had the procedure while awake. 

Colonoscopy sedation is typically done with one of two recipes: 1) conscious sedation with a combination of intravenous Versed (generic name midazolam, a benzodiazepine in the Valium family) plus intravenous fentanyl, such that the patient has no memory of the procedure; or 2) intravenous general anesthesia with propofol by continuous infusion or by intermittent boluses so that the patient is unresponsive. The combination of Versed and fentanyl leads to a slower wakeup and recovery than with propofol. The duration of effect of Versed is approximately 30 to 45 minutes after a single dose, with a recovery time of 2 to 6 hours. The duration of effect of IV fentanyl begins within minutes and lasts for 30 to 60 minutes after a single dose. 

Propofol for colonoscopy leads to a quicker wakeup, a quicker discharge home, and less hangover. Virtually every surgical general anesthetic in the United States includes propofol, and anesthesiologists are experts at the administration and pharmaceutical properties of the drug. Propofol is an intravenous nonbarbiturate anesthetic which induces anesthesia quickly and provides a rapid emergence from anesthesia. The onset of action is within 20 – 40 seconds. The anesthesia provider for a colonoscopy will continue administering IV propofol until the procedure is over. A typical colonoscopy will last 20 – 40 minutes, depending on whether the gastroenterologist needs to take extra time to remove any colonic polyps. In Biden’s case, a single 3 mm benign-appearing polyp was identified and removed.

Propofol’s pharmacokinetics are described by two phases:

In the first phase (red curve), the plasma concentration decreases rapidly because the drug redistributes, or spreads, out of the bloodstream into other tissues of the body. The half–life of this fast redistribution is only 2 – 8 minutes, meaning the concentration of propofol in the bloodstream is halved every 2 to 8 minutes. This first phase explains the quick transition to wakefulness up after the drug is stopped. The second phase (black curve) is the elimination of propofol from the body. The half-life time of this elimination from the body is 4 – 7 hours (reference: MILLER’S ANESTHESIA, 9thedition, chapter 23 on Intravenous Anesthetics).

The graph below depicts the timeline after propofol is discontinued. After a one-hour infusion, the concentration of propofol in the blood drops to near zero within 30-40 minutes.

THE PROPOFOL CONCENTRATION APPROACHES ZERO 40 MINUTES AFTER THE END OF INFUSION

The website PDR.net affirms this, stating that “Recovery from anesthesia is rapid (8 to 19 minutes for 2 hours of anesthesia) and is associated with minimal psychomotor impairment.” The PDR also states that “The elimination half-life of 3 to 12 hours is the result of slow release of propofol from fat stores. About 70% of a single dose is excreted renally (by the kidneys) in 24 hours.”

While the President would be awake one hour after receiving 30 minutes of propofol, and the blood concentration would be minimal, it still takes 24 hours for 70% of a single dose of propofol to be excreted by the kidneys. Therefore, one hour after the propofol was discontinued, even though the blood concentration was minimal, a significant amount of the drug would still be in the President’s body.

I’ve had propofol anesthesia for a colonoscopy, and I can attest that I woke up promptly and was in an automobile heading home within 45 minutes after the end of the procedure. I felt alert, albeit a bit woozy, after 60 minutes of recovery time. Did I feel it would have been safe for me to resume my duties administering general anesthetics to patients at that time? No. Would a major American airline allow one of its pilots to fly passengers at that time? No. Would the U.S. Army allow a general to command thousands of soldiers at that time? I doubt it.

One hour after a propofol colonoscopy anesthetic, the President would be awake enough to converse and give a “thumbs up.” Would he be alert enough at that point to make decisions regarding the nuclear football, a potential attack on Taiwan by mainland China, or a terrorist attack on a major United States city? Was this nearly 79-year-old man safe to make all the acute decisions the United States President could have to make, only one hour after discontinuing propofol? 

The Mayo Clinic website states that, “After the exam (colonoscopy), it takes about an hour to begin to recover from the sedative. You’ll need someone to take you home because it can take up to a day for the full effects of the sedative to wear off. Don’t drive or make important decisions or go back to work for the rest of the day.” 

Was Biden fit to run the country 55 minutes after his colonoscopy anesthetic? 

Hmmm. The decision as to whether he was recovered enough to resume running the country . . . was a decision made by President Biden’s doctors on that day.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
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READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

THE NEW 2022 ASA DIFFICULT AIRWAY ALGORITHM

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) just published a 2022 update on their ASA Difficult Airway Algorithm Guidelines. The 2022 document is a revision of the 2013 publication “Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway: A report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway.” The 2022 ASA Difficult Airway Algorithm Guidelines are 51 pages in total.

The most important changes are identified by examining the 2013 and the 2022 algorithms side by side. Let’s look at the 2013 flow chart algorithm and compare it to the 2022 flow chart algorithm below:

THE 2013 ASA DIFFICULT AIRWAY ALGORITHM

THE 2022 ASA DIFFICULT AIRWAY ALGORITHM

Note these major changes from 2013 to 2022:

  1. The top third of the 2022 algorithm lists factors which direct the anesthesiologist to perform awake intubation. The reason for this change is undoubtably the wisdom of utilizing awake intubation when a significant risk of a difficulty airway exists. There are minimal airway risks when a patient is awake, and the benefit of placing the endotracheal tube in a difficult airway patient while the patient is awake is immense. When we give mock oral board examinations to anesthesia residents at Stanford, and we describe to the examinee that the patient has a difficult airway, the answer of “I’d do an awake intubation” is hard to criticize and almost never leads to a catastrophe. In contrast, inducing general anesthesia prior to intubation in these patients can lead to a “Can’t intubate-can’t oxygenate” emergency, which can lead to a cardiac arrest and possible anoxic brain damage.
  2. The text highlighted in red in the 2022 document is both new and vital. The first of these is “OPTIMIZE OXYGENATION THROUGHOUT,” under the pathway INTUBATION ATTEMPT WITH PATIENT AWAKE, with the footnote 2Low- or high-flow nasal cannula, head elevated position throughout procedure. Noninvasive ventilation during preoxygenation. The message is to keep oxygen flowing via nasal cannula throughout airway management attempts to minimize hypoxia, and to keep the head elevated to maximize the functional residual capacity (FRC), which is the reservoir of oxygen in the patient’s lungs.
  3. “LIMIT ATTEMPTS, Consider calling for help” is new and printed within a red box in the INTUBATION ATTEMPT AFTER GENERAL ANESTHESIA –> FAILED pathway. This is an effort to prevent repetitive unsuccessful intubation attempts from soaking up precious time, during which the brain is poorly oxygenated.
  4. “LIMIT ATTEMPTS AND CONSIDER AWAKENING THE PATIENT” is new and printed in red in the NON-EMERGENCY PATHWAY under the “Ventilation adequate/intubation unsuccessful” pathway. This is again an effort prevent repetitive unsuccessful intubation attempts from soaking up precious time, during which the brain is poorly oxygenated.
  5. “LIMIT ATTEMPTS AND BE AWARE OF THE PASSAGE OF TIME, CALL FOR HELP/FOR INVASIVE ACCESS” is new and printed in red in the EMERGENCY PATHWAY under the MASK VENTILATION NOT ADEQUATE, SUPRAGLOTTIC AIRWAY NOT ADEQUATE pathway. This is again an effort to prevent repetitive unsuccessful intubation attempts from soaking up precious time, during which the brain is poorly oxygenated.

These changes, printed or boxed in red, emphasize that the pace of difficult airway decisions is important. The duration of elapsed time is vital. When an anesthesia provider cannot intubate the patient and then cannot ventilate the patient, the oxygen level in the blood can plummet. There is a significant danger of anoxic brain damage within minutes. I’ve previously reviewed this topic in a 2019 Anesthesia Grand Rounds Lecture at Stanford, summarized in my article “Five Minutes to Avoid Anoxic Brain Damage.” The U.S. Library of Medicine website states that “Brain cells are very sensitive to a lack of oxygen. Some brain cells start dying less than 5 minutes after their oxygen supply disappears. As a result, brain hypoxia can rapidly cause severe brain damage or death,” and “Time is very important when an unconscious person is not breathing. Permanent brain damage begins after only 4 minutes without oxygen, and death can occur as soon as 4 to 6 minutes later.”

The sentence “Be aware of the passage of time, the number of attempts, and oxygen saturation” appears more than once in the 2022 Difficult Airway Algorithm Guidelines article, and is a key point for all anesthesia providers who encounter a difficulty airway emergency.

In my roles as an anesthesia quality assurance reviewer or a medical-legal expert consultant, I’ve seen this issue arise multiple times. Even though anesthesia providers believe they are following the Difficult Algorithm accurately, they are doing things too slowly, and they waste too much time. Once it’s clear that a “Cannot intubate-cannot oxygenate” scenario is occurring, the time clock is running, and the anesthesia provider must not only do the correct thing but he or she must do the correct thing without undue delay. The necessary procedure may be as invasive as a cricothyroidotomy/front of the neck access via the scalpel-bougie-endotracheal tube approach.  

The five points listed above are the major changes in the algorithm. In addition, the new 2022 article includes a Pediatric Difficult Airway Algorithm and an approach to Extubation of the Trachea in a Difficult Airway Patient. Other important quotes from the 2022 article include (bold emphasis added):

  1. “The consultants and members of participating organizations strongly agree with recommendations to perform awake intubation, when appropriate, if the patient is suspected to be a difficult intubation and difficult ventilation (face mask/supraglottic airway) is anticipated.”
  2. “Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials comparing video-assisted laryngoscopy with direct laryngoscopy in patients with predicted difficult airways reported improved laryngeal views, a higher frequency of successful intubations, a higher frequency of first attempt intubations, and fewer intubation maneuvers with video-assisted laryngoscopy.”
  3. The footnote (7) for alternative difficult intubation approaches states: 7Alternative difficult intubation approaches include but are not limited to video-assisted laryngoscopy, alternative laryngoscope blades, combined techniques, intubating supraglottic airway (with or without flexible bronchoscopic guidance), flexible bronchoscopy, introducer, and lighted stylet or lightwand. 
  4. “A randomized controlled trial comparing a videolaryngoscope combined with a flexible bronchoscope reported a greater first attempt success rate with the combination technique than with a videolaryngoscope alone.”
  5. “When appropriate, refer to an algorithm and/or cognitive aid.” 

AUTHOR’S NOTE: I’d suggest that the Stanford Emergency Manual of cognitive aid algorithms for anesthesia and ACLS emergencies be onsite at all anesthetizing locations. 

I’d also recommend that the 2022 ASA Difficult Airway guideline algorithm be onsite at all anesthetizing locations.

Every anesthesia professional will encounter patients with difficult airways—this is one of the most important and most feared situations in our specialty. Commit the 2022 ASA Difficult Airway Algorithm to memory. Use awake intubation when you’re concerned about the potential of a “Cannot intubate-cannot oxygenate” scenario. And if you’re in the middle of a difficult airway emergency, call for help and be aware of the passage of time, the number of attempts, and the oxygen saturation. Don’t let an excessive number of minutes elapse without regaining oxygenation of your patient.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

PHYSICIAN TRAINING: TWO FORKS IN THE ROAD

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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You’re in the middle of your medical school years, and wondering what specialty to pursue. There are two major forks in the road when trying to choose the career that suits your emotional make-up and work ethic. The sooner you understand these two forks in the road, the better off you’ll be. 

CLINIC DOCTOR OR ACUTE CARE DOCTOR?

The first major fork in the road is whether you’re best suited for a career as a clinic doctor or as an acute care doctor. The main specialties for clinic doctors are internal medicine, family practice, pediatrics, and psychiatry. The main specialties for acute care doctors are surgery, anesthesiology, emergency medicine, and obstetrics-gynecology.

Internal medicine and pediatrics include subspecialties. The subspecialties of endocrinology, oncology, nephrology (kidney specialist), and allergy-immunology are primarily clinic doctors. Cardiologists are hybrid clinic/acute care doctors who must first complete a residency in internal medicine, and then subspecialize with 3-4 additional years of fellowship training. Pulmonologists (lung specialists) are also hybrid clinic/acute care doctors who must first complete a residency in internal medicine, and then subspecialize with 2 additional years of fellowship training.

Pursue a career as a clinic doctor if you enjoy sitting in a room, listening to patients and talking to patients. Most clinic doctors rarely place a tube or a needle into a patient after their residency training is completed. Most clinic doctors work daytime hours, but have weekend call and night call, which may include phone consultations or emergency room visits. Clinic doctors see multiple patients per day, perhaps 4-8 patients per day for psychiatrists, and up to 30 patients or more for some specialists such as allergists.

Pursue a career as an acute care doctor if you prefer adrenaline-charged arenas such as the operating room, the intensive care unit, the labor and delivery suite, or the emergency room. The pace will be much faster than in a clinic, and the stress level will be higher. You’ll perform surgeries, deliver babies, or run trauma Code Blues. If you become an anesthesiologist, you’ll routinely put your patients into pharmaceutical comas and then reverse that status.

These are some of the significant differences between the clinic path and the acute care path:

  1. Sudden risks are almost unknown in clinics. In a clinic setting, doctors make diagnoses, order tests, and prescribe oral medications. In an acute care setting, health care interventions involve scalpels, tubes, IVs, intravenous medications, breathing tubes and ventilators. Malpractice events are less likely to occur in clinic settings. It’s difficult to harm a patient in a clinic. Clinic errors may involve the failure to make the correct diagnosis or the failure to follow up on the result of an important test. Acute care errors can include failure to manage the A-B-Cs of airway, breathing, and circulation safely.
  2. Income differences. Physicians who do procedures, and who incur the risks of procedures gone wrong, earn more money. Physicians who staff clinics usually earn less. This fact may be concealed from medical students. Once students become aware of the income differences, the invisible hand of capitalism tends to drive them into the acute care specialties which are higher paying. The financial numbers are pertinent, because the median debt for an American medical school graduate was $200,000 in 2019. The average four-year cost for a public medical school education was $250,222, and the average four-year cost for a private medical school education was $330,180.  Medical school graduates need to earn a significant income to repay their student loans.
  3. Long-term relationships with patients. Primary care clinic doctors often attend to the same patients for decades, and form long-term cordial relationships with their patients. Acute care doctors typically see a patient once, for a surgery, an anesthetic, a childbirth, or an emergency room visit. Acute care doctors rarely develop lasting interactions with any of their patients. Clinic doctors may receive holiday cards or presents from their patients; acute care doctors will not.
  4. Lifestyle differences. Clinic doctors mainly work daytime hours, although they may receive afterhours phone calls regarding patient health problems. If one of their patients becomes acutely ill, a primary care doctor may see that patient in the emergency room. Some acute care specialists work as shift labor, especially emergency room doctors, anesthesiologists, or hospitalists. Acute care doctors may also have schedules in which they can take blocks of weeks or even months off at a time, giving them the option to pursue longer vacations or travel. Primary care doctors are rarely able to take long blocks of time away from their patients.

ACADEMIC DOCTOR OR COMMUNITY DOCTOR?

A second fork in the road during physician training is the choice whether to become an academic physician or a community physician. An academic physician is a faculty member at a medical school. Their job description includes teaching younger doctors and mentoring younger doctors in patient care. Academic physicians work in university hospitals, Veterans Administration (VA) hospitals, and county hospitals—any setting where medical students and resident physicians are training. Ambitious medical students often plan to become academic physicians, because they admire the academic professors who are training them. Ambitious medical students may profess that they want to become academic professors, because it may appear this career path is what the finest university training programs are looking for. The gambit seems to look like this: if you want to be admitted to a famous university residency program, tell them you want to be a famous professor just like the individual who is interviewing you for that program. I can only advise you to tell the truth about your career ambitions.

Most physicians eventually drift away from academic intentions, and become community physicians. Community physicians are individuals who work at your local clinic, your local hospital, or your local health maintenance organization. A 2017 article stated that “Although 45 percent of graduating medical students aspire to work in an academic setting, only about 16 percent will do so. Of those who do work in academic settings, up to 38 percent will leave academia within 10 years.” 

These are some of the significant differences between the between the academic path and the community path:

  1. Income. Academic physicians usually earn less money than community physicians. Academics spend part of their time teaching young doctors, instead of seeing additional patients. Academics may also spend part of their time doing laboratory science or clinical studies, instead of seeing additional patients. Academic departments also typically pay a “Dean’s tax” to the medical school dean, as part of their agreement within the medical school. 
  2. Housestaff back-up. Academic physicians have a team of housestaff physicians—interns, residents, and fellows—to do many of the mundane tasks of patient care for them. These housestaff physicians may sleep in the hospital and handle middle-of-the night issues while the academic faculty member sleeps at home. This is a significant benefit. I can attest that as you age, you’ll have less and less desire to get out of bed to handle urgent medical issues. Community physicians must function like interns. They set up call schedules to share night duty with other community physicians in the same specialty, but if there’s an issue at night when you’re on call, you will have to drive to the hospital to handle it.
  3. Tenure for professors. If academic professors have a productive career of publishing significant research, their university may award them with tenure, defined as lifetime job security at that university. Tenure guarantees a distinguished professor academic freedom and freedom of speech by protecting him or her from being fired no matter how controversial or nontraditional their research, publications, or ideas are. This benefit is usually only an option for basic science research doctors who are specifically hired to “tenure-track” appointments.

A THIRD FORK:

A small minority of medical school graduates shun either academic or community practice, and instead take their MD degree and go directly to work in industry either as a researcher at a medical company, or a consultant in a medical industry. Consider this path if you believe you’re not suited to taking care of patients.

My Journey:

I had personal experience with each of these forks in my medical education road. During medical school I was having a difficult time deciding between surgery and internal medicine. During my final summer quarter break, I returned to my hometown and joined the local general surgeon to observe him performing a gall bladder surgery. After the procedure, I questioned him about his satisfaction with his career in general surgery. He told me, “I’m very happy with general surgery, but if I had to do the 7-year residency over again, I could never do it. It was that difficult.” The look on his face told me what I needed to know, so I opted for a career in internal medicine. I matched at Stanford and began my three-year residency. During my second year, while I was spending my afternoons in the internal medicine clinic, I realized I preferred acute care to clinic care. That same year I’d spent one month in the Stanford intensive care unit (ICU) rotation. The Stanford anesthesia department ran the ICU, and I met multiple faculty and resident anesthesiologists who loved their specialty and were excellent role models. I made an appointment to meet with the ICU physician-in-chief, and told him I wanted to become an ICU specialist like him. He told me, “If you want to be an ICU doctor, I’d advise you to do an anesthesia residency first, because ICU care involves airway-breathing-circulation, and anesthesiologists are the airway experts. But once you finish your anesthesia residency, you’ll never come back to see me, because you’ll love anesthesia so much you’ll probably just do anesthesiology as a career.” I followed his advice. I applied to anesthesia residencies, and was eventually accepted to begin my anesthesia training, albeit three years into the future.

During those three years, I finished my internal medicine training. Then I hovered at the fork in the road between academic and community medicine during my one-year gap between my internal medicine and anesthesia residencies. The Stanford Department of Internal Medicine hired me for a twelve-month position as a faculty member in the emergency room. My role was to be the attending in the ER from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Friday, and to give a lecture to the residents each morning at 8 a.m. I was thrilled to be on the faculty at Stanford at the young age of 29. I discovered during that year that if you’re an academic doctor/clinician/educator who doesn’t do research, that you have minimal respect within your department. That same year I met many community doctors on their ER duty who were very happy with their work. My conclusion from my one-year academic appointment was that if you enjoyed clinical care, then it was better to just graduate from your training program and go out there and do clinical care in the community. If I’d had the skillset to become a tenure-track academic professor, perhaps I would have pursued a university career, but I did not.

THE BIG PICTURE:

There is tremendous competition to become a physician. Applications to medical school are at an all time high. According to the American Association of Medical Colleges (AAMC), applications increased 18% from 2020 to 2021. Stanford University School of Medicine received 11,000 applications for an admission class of 90 spots.

It’s an honorable and a wonderful career to heal and take care of sick and suffering as a medical doctor. If you’re admitted to an American medical school, you’ll have the choice whether to become a primary care doctor or an acute care doctor. You’ll have the choice to become an academic physician or a community physician. But you’ll have made the most important choice already—to become a medical doctor in the first place. 

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

NURSE ANESTHESIOLOGY?

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Who is responsible for your safety before, during, and after your surgery? Will it be a nurse or will it be a physician? This is an important question. Perioperative mortality is the third leading cause of death in the United States after heart disease and cancer. This statement appeared in the July 2021 issue of Anesthesiology, our specialty’s leading journal.  We’re all aware of the threats from heart disease or cancer, but most people know next to nothing about “perioperative mortality.” What is perioperative mortality? 

The word “perioperative” means “around the time of surgery.” It’s officially defined as the 30-day time period following surgery. “Mortality” means a patient death. Any patient who dies within 30 days of their anesthetic qualifies as a perioperative mortality. Very few patients die in the operating room, but significant numbers die in the weeks that follow. 

Why do patients die? A 2013 study in Anesthesiology states, “Despite the fact that a surgical procedure may have been performed for the appropriate indication and in a technically perfect manner, patients are threatened by perioperative organ injury. For example, stroke, myocardial infarction, acute respiratory distress syndrome, acute kidney injury, or acute gut injury are among the most common causes for morbidity and mortality in surgical patients.”  

The same article states, “a 30-day death rate of 1.32% in a U.S.-based inpatient surgical population for the year 2006. This translates to 189,690 deaths in 14.3 million (1 in 75) admitted surgical patients in one year in the United States alone. For the same year, only two categories reported by the Center for Disease Control—heart disease and cancer—caused more deaths in the general population.” Note this data was for inpatient surgeries.

The practice of anesthesiology is currently defined as “perioperative medicine.” At Stanford University, we’re called the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine. Perioperative medicine refers to the care of patients before surgery (preoperative), during surgery (intraoperative), and after surgery (postoperative). Each of these three areas is critical in assuring the lowest rate of complications. The American Board of Anesthesiology requires each candidate for board certification to pass an oral exam with clinical questions pertaining to preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative management. A board-certified physician anesthesiologist is therefore validated as an expert in all areas of perioperative medicine.

Who will make YOUR anesthetic decisions? Who will take care of you before, during, and after YOUR surgery? 

Most anesthetics are conducted by physician anesthesiologists. At times, physician anesthesiologists employ certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNAs) to assist them in what is called the anesthesia care team (ACT) model. In this model, an MD anesthesiologist supervises up to four CRNAs who work in up to four different operating rooms simultaneously. All the responsibility in the ACT model resides with the supervising MD anesthesiologist.  

In a minority of states (19 of the 50 states) in America, governors made it legal for an unsupervised CRNA to provide anesthesia care. Are CRNAs and anesthesiologists equals? No, they are not. The difference in training is profound. CRNAs are registered nurses with a minimum of one year experience as a critical care nurse followed by, on the average, an anesthesia training period of three years.  https://www.aana.com/membership/become-a-crna/minimum-education-and-experience-requirements  Physician anesthesiologists have to graduate from a four-year medical school or osteopathic  school, and then complete four additional years of internship and residency to become board-eligible anesthesiologists. The initial rationale for unsupervised CRNA care was that some rural communities had inadequate supplies of MD anesthesiologists, so governors made the decision to let nurses supply the anesthesia care unsupervised. These states include Arizona, Oklahoma, Iowa, Nebraska, Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Kansas, North Dakota, Washington, Alaska, Oregon, Montana, South Dakota, Wisconsin, California, Colorado, and Kentucky. If you live in one of these 19 states, there’s no guarantee a perioperative physician anesthesiologist will care for you. 

Does the lack of a perioperative physician—an anesthesiologist—make a difference? Yes. 

Doctor J H Silber’s landmark study from the University of Pennsylvania documented that both 30-day mortality and failure-to-rescue rates were lower when anesthesia care was supervised by anesthesiologists, as opposed to anesthesia care by unsupervised nurse anesthetists. Silber wrote, “These results suggest that surgical outcomes in Medicare patients are associated with anesthesiologist direction, and may provide insight regarding potential approaches for improving surgical outcomes.”

In 2009, in California where I live and work, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a law permitting independent practice for CRNAs. California physician anesthesiologists have been angry and concerned about this legislation change, but in the 12+ years since the law went into effect, the penetration of unsupervised CRNA practice in California was been minimal. This is despite the fact that there is an oversupply of CRNAs in the western United States.   

The traditional older models of physician-only anesthesia or the anesthesia care team are still the dominant modes of practice in California. 

Anesthesiology is the practice of medicine. Perioperative medicine is the practice of medicine. Anesthesiology and perioperative medicine are the domains of physicians. 

When you are a patient in an intensive care unit (ICU), all orders and decisions are made by physicians. Nurses are an essential part of ICU care, but management is by physicians. 

When you are a patient in an emergency room (ER), all orders and decisions are made by physicians. Nurses are an essential part of ER care, but management is by physicians.    

Why should your perioperative medicine be managed by non-physicians?

A major conflict is playing out in American medicine at this time. Beginning in 2025, all CRNAs will need a doctorate in nurse anesthesia to enter the field. Expect these nursing graduates to introduce themselves to you as “Doctor.” This new degree, called a “Doctor of Nursing Anesthesia Practice (DNAP),” is not a medical school diploma, and by no means is equivalent to the Medical Doctor (MD) degree held by physician anesthesiologists. Medical school admission in America is extremely competitive. For the 2020-2021 year there were 53,030 medical school applicants, and 22,239 applicants were admitted, meaning only 42% of medical school applicants matriculated. 

The American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (AANA) has made the decision to deceive patients by formally changing its name to the American Association of Nurse Anesthesiology, confusing the distinction between an MD anesthesiologist and a nurse anesthetist by adopting the word “anesthesiologist” to describe themselves. 

The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) released this statement: “The American Society of Anesthesiologists condemns AANA’s organizational name change and encouragement of its members’ use of the term “nurse anesthesiologist,” which will confuse patients and create discord in the care setting, ultimately risking patient safety.” The ASA statement also said:

  • ASA, the American Board of Anesthesiology, the American Board of Medical Specialties and the American Medical Association affirm that anesthesiology is a medical specialty and professionals who refer to themselves as “anesthesiologists” must hold a license to practice medicine.
  • The New Hampshire Supreme Court upheld a ruling in March 2021 by the New Hampshire Board of Medicine to limit the use of the term “anesthesiologist” to individuals licensed to practice medicine.
  • The Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Programs defines “anesthesiologist” as a doctor of medicine (M.D.) or doctor of osteopathy (D.O.) who has successfully completed an approved anesthesiology residency program.
  • The World Health Organization views “anesthesiology as a medical practice” that should be directed and supervised by an anesthesiologist.

Who will be taking care of YOU before, during, and after your surgery? As patients, you deserve to know, and you also deserve a physician managing your perioperative medicine. 

Before your surgery, you deserve a medical doctor.    

After your surgery, you deserve a medical doctor.    

And yes . . . during your surgery, you deserve a medical doctor of anesthesiology as well.

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The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:
How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?
Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?
Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?
What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?
How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?
Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?
What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:
10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia
Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?
12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training
Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?
Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams
What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

READ ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM.

AN ANESTHESIOLOGIST’S SALARY

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 2 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Latest posts by THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT (see all)

How much money does an anesthesiologist earn? What is a physician anesthesiologist’s salary in today’s marketplace?

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Let me begin by offering two anecdotes:

  • I was an invited visiting anesthesia professor at a major university this year, and following one of my lectures an anesthesiology resident approached me for a discussion. During our conversation he revealed that his student loan debt was $300,000. In 2014 the published average student loan debt for a physician was $183,000. I believe a higher estimate is not unusual, particularly if the student doctor attended private medical school and/or college.
  • I recently received an email from a medical student who was considering anesthesia as a career specialty, but his concern was: is the bottom about to fall out for anesthesiologists’ salaries? Should he perhaps avoid a career in anesthesiology?

Each anecdote concerns the issue of how much anesthesiologists earn, and what will that number be in the future?

The good news for the future of anesthesia careers is that the number of surgeries in the United States is expected at increase as the Baby Boomers age. The demand for anesthesia services will grow. Who will provide these services, and what will they be paid?

How much money do anesthesiologists currently make?

It depends.

If you do a Google search on this question, most of the published answers vary from $275,000 to $360,000 per year.

This sounds like a lot of money, but recall that to reach that salary, an anesthesiologist must finish 4 years of medical school and a 4-year anesthesia residency. At a minimum these young anesthesiologists are 30 years old. The deferred gratification is significant. Had they gone to work after college at age 22 and been promoted in a business job for 8 years, that individual might own a home, be saving for their children’s college educations, and would not have the debt from 4 years of medical school.

Let’s assume an individual does persevere and finish their anesthesia residency at age 30, and is now seeking an anesthesia job with that aforementioned average salary of $275,000 to $360,000 per year.

The first question: is that advertised salary a number prior to deductions for the big three of pension plan, health insurance, and malpractice insurance? If an anesthesiologist earns $300,000 per year, but must subtract these three expenses (let’s estimate pension plan at $45,000, health insurance at $24,000, and malpractice insurance at $20,000) then the income drops to $300,000 minus $89,000 = $211,000 per year, or $17,583 per month before taxes. Subtract again for student loan payments, and the income level continues to decrease. So a critical first question to ask is if the big three benefits are/are not part of the promised salary.

What specific factors determine how high the anesthesiologist’s salary will be? An operating room anesthesia practice is somewhat akin to being a taxi cab driver. You earn income for each ride/anesthetic, and your income depends on how many rides/anesthetics and how long they last. More complex anesthetics such as cardiac cases pay more, but the largest determiner is the duration of time one spends giving the anesthesia care. If you work in a physician anesthesiology practice where an MD stays with each surgical patient 100% of the time, then the only way to increase income is to do more cases or more hours. If you work in a practice which utilizes an anesthesia care team, where one physician anesthesiologist may supervise, for example, 4 Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists (CRNAs), then a physician’s income is increased because he or she is billing for and supervising care for multiple concurrent surgeries.

Different payers pay different sums per unit time. The top payers are insured patients of less than Medicare age (<65 years old). Among the lowest payers are uninsured patients (who often pay zero), Medicaid and Medicare patients, and Worker’s Compensation patients. Medicare patients routinely pay only 13-20 cents on the billed dollar, and Medicaid pays even lower, so a practice heavy with Medicare and Medicaid patients will compensate their anesthesiologists poorly. Insurance companies (i.e. Blue Cross, Blue Shield, Aetna, United Healthcare) pay whatever rate they have contracted with that anesthesia group. If a particular insurance company pays a low rate, an anesthesia group may refuse to sign a contract with that insurance company. This leaves the anesthesiologist out-of-network with that company, which can mean a higher payment or co-payment for the patient as a result of the insurance company’s refusal to negotiate a fair reimbursement.

Just as taxi cab drivers are being supplanted by Uber and Lyft, cheaper models of anesthesia care are popping up, and the penetration of these models into the future marketplace is unknown. One model is having a CRNA do the anesthetic independently without any physician anesthesiologist present. This is currently legal in 27 states (see map). At the current time, in my home state of California, independent CRNA practice is legal, but the penetration of this model in the marketplace is very minimal. The Veterans Affairs hospitals are currently pondering a move to allow CRNAs to practice independently without any physician anesthesiologist present. You can expect to see a higher penetration of the anesthesia care team, where one physician anesthesiologist may supervise, for example, 4 CRNAs, and a decrease in practices where an MD anesthesiologist stays with each patient 100% of the time.

To be blunt, my impression is that the future marketplace is unlikely to pay for a physician anesthesiologist to do solo anesthesia care for each and every surgical patient.

In the current marketplace a young graduate anesthesiologist may enter one of several different models of anesthesia practices. Each has a different level of salary expectation. The various models are listed below, in roughly a higher-income-per-anesthesiologist to lower-income-per-anesthesiologist order:

  1. A single-specialty anesthesia group that shares income fairly. This group may be as small as 5 or as large as hundreds of physician anesthesiologists, with or without additional CRNAs. Such a group usually has an exclusive contract with a hospital or hospitals to provide all anesthesia services, which can include trauma, obstetrics, and 24-hour emergency room coverage. A very large single-specialty anesthesia group may contract with many hospitals in a geographic area. In a single-specialty model, that single-specialty group receives all the anesthesia billings, and the income is divided, usually in some form of “eat-what-you-provided” formula. Those MDs who worked the most receive a proportional increase in their income. A new MD may have a one-year try-out before they become a partner, after which they are entitled to an equal income per unit time. This model where anesthesiologists are partners, is typically more lucrative than models where the anesthesiologists are employed by another entity. A survey by Medscape on anesthesiologists’ salaries in 2016 showed that male self-employed anesthesiologists (model #1) earned an average income of $413,000, while male anesthesiologist employees (see models #2 – #8 below) earned an average income of $336,000.
  2. A single-specialty anesthesia group in which a chairman (or a small oligopoly of MDs) collect the money, and then employ and grant a salary to everyone below them in the company. New hires are paid less, often with no potential to increase their income. This type of system preys on junior anesthesiologists.
  3. A multispecialty medical group. A multispecialty medical group has a bevy of primary care physicians who refer internally to their specialist surgeons, who then utilize their internal group of anesthesiologists. This is a secure job for anesthesiologists because the stream of cases is guaranteed by the physicians within their multispecialty group. A disadvantage is that incomes from lower paying specialties (primary care MDs) and higher paying specialties (i.e. cardiologists, surgeons, and anesthesiologists) are pooled. The lower paying specialists usually have their salaries raised, and the anesthesiologists will be subsidizing them.
  4. An HMO. In California the Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) Kaiser Permanente has a large share of the marketplace. The entity known as the Permanente Medical Group is the multispecialty integrated medical group which works at the Kaiser hospitals and clinics. The reimbursement model will be similar to that described in #3 above.
  5. University anesthesia groups. A university employs MDs as a multispecialty medical group, and the model is similar to #3 above. A difference is that university groups have various taxes and fees on their income that go to the betterment and growth of the medical school and the university hospital system. In addition, some university hospitals provide care to indigent populations that may have higher percentage of poor payers such as Medicaid or uninsured patients.
  6. National anesthesia companies. In this model, a national company obtains the anesthesia contract for a hospital or multiple facilities, and then that national company hires and employs anesthesiologists. The company bills for the anesthesia services provided, pays their employee anesthesiologists whatever sum they’ve agreed to pay them, and the difference between the received monies and the owed salaries is profit that goes to stockholders of the national company. This model is problematic for our specialty, because a percentage of the anesthesia fees goes to stockholders who had zero to do with performing the professional service.
  7. Veteran’s Affairs (VA) hospital anesthesia groups. At the present time, VA hospitals are staffed by anesthesiologists who are employees of the VA system. As mentioned above, there are politicians pushing for the VA to allow CRNAs to practice independently, unsupervised by physician anesthesiologists. The American Society of Anesthesiologists is opposed to this change, believing that our veterans deserve physician anesthesiologists.
  8. Locum tenens assignments. These are part-time, week-long, or month-long anesthesia duties, paid for at a daily rate. A typical fee for a full day’s work may be a pre-tax payment of $1200/day (not including the big three of pension, health or malpractice insurance).

As stated above, the good news for the future of anesthesia careers is that the number of surgeries in the United States is expected at increase as the Baby Boomers age. The demand for anesthesia services will grow. The unknown fiscal factors for the future of our specialty are:

  1. What will insurers/Medicare/Medicaid/the Affordable Care Act pay for these anesthesia services? Will a single payer government health plan ever arrive, and if it does what will anesthesiologists be paid?
  2. Who will be giving these services? Physician anesthesiologists, anesthesia care teams involving physician anesthesiologists plus CRNAs, anesthesia care teams involving physician anesthesiologists plus Anesthesia Assistants, or independent CRNAs?
  3. The American Society of Anesthesiologists is attempting to rebrand the practice of anesthesiology with the concept of the Perioperative Surgical Home (PSH), in which physician anesthesiologists are responsible for all aspects of preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative medical care for patients around the time of surgery. This expanded role includes preoperative clinics and postoperative pain control and medical management. To what degree can/will the PSH change the job market for graduating anesthesiologists?

In any case, as I wrote on the Home Page of theanesthesiaconsultant.com website, “the profession of medicine offers a lifetime of fascination, and no specialty is more fascinating than anesthesiology.” If a college student or a medical student is truly interested in a career in anesthesia, I remain encouraging to them, regardless of these uncertainties regarding the future.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

 

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Check out . . . THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

41wlRoWITkL

 

LEARN MORE ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM BY CLICKING ON THE PICTURE BELOW:

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DENTAL ANESTHESIA DEATHS . . . GENERAL ANESTHESIA FOR PEDIATRIC PATIENTS IN DENTAL OFFICES

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Latest posts by THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT (see all)

GENERAL ANESTHESIA FOR DENTAL OFFICES CASE PRESENTATION: A 5-year-old developmentally delayed autistic boy has multiple dental cavities. The dentist consults you, a physician anesthesiologist, to do sedation or anesthesia for dental restoration. What do you do?

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DISCUSSION:  Children periodically die in dental offices due to complications of general anesthesia or intravenous sedation. Links to recent reports include the following:

A 3-year-old girl dies in San Ramon, CA after a dental procedure in July 2016.

A 14-month-old child, scheduled to have 2 cavities filled, dies in an Austin, TX dental office. The dentist and an anesthesiologist were both present.

A 6-year-old boy, scheduled to have teeth capped at a dental clinic, has anesthesia and dies after the breathing tube is removed.

Another 6-year-old boy, scheduled to have a tooth extracted by an oral surgeon, dies after the oral surgeon administers general anesthesia.

Pediatric dentists use a variety of tactics to keep a typical child calm during dental care. The child is encouraged to view a movie or cartoon while the dental hygienist or dentist works. The parent or parents are encouraged to sit alongside their child to provide emotional support. If a typical child requires a filling for a cavity, the dentist can utilize nitrous oxide via a nasal mask with or without local anesthesia inside the mouth.

These simple methods are not effective if the child has a developmental delay, autism, behavioral problems, or if the child is very young. Such cases sometimes present to a pediatric hospital for anesthetic care, but at times the child will be treated in a dental office. Possible anesthesia professionals include a physician anesthesiologist, a dental anesthesiologist, or an oral surgeon (who is trained in both surgery and anesthesia).

 

HOW WOULD A PHYSICIAN ANESTHESIOLOGIST ANESTHETIZE A CHILD IN A DENTAL OFFICE?

There are a variety of techniques an anesthesiologist might use to sedate or anesthetize a young child. The correct choice is usually the simplest technique that works. Alternative methods include intramuscular sedation, intravenous sedation, or potent inhaled anesthetics.

 

ANESTHESIA INDUCTION:

The first decision is how to begin the anesthetic on an uncooperative child. Options for anesthesia induction include:

  1. Intramuscular sedation. A typical recipe is the combination of 2 mg/kg of ketamine, 0.2 mg/kg of midazolam, and .02 mg/kg of atropine. These three medications are drawn up in a single syringe and injected into either the deltoid muscle at the shoulder or into the muscle of the anterior thigh. Ketamine is a general anesthetic drug that induces unconsciousness and relieves pain. Midazolam is a benzodiazepine which induces sleepiness and decreases anxiety. Ketamine can cause intense dreams which may be frightening. Midazolam is given because it minimizes ketamine dreams. Atropine offsets the increased oral secretions induced by ketamine. Within minutes after the injection of these three drugs, the child will become sleepy and unresponsive, and the anesthesiologist can take the child from the parent’s arms and bring the patient into the operating room. Most anesthesiologists will insert an intravenous catheter into the patient’s arm at this point, so any further doses of ketamine, midazolam, or propofol can be administered through the IV.
  2. Oral sedation with a dose of 0.5-0.75 mg/kg of oral midazolam syrup (maximum dose 20 mg). If the child will tolerate drinking the oral medication, the child will become sleepy within 15- 20 minutes. At this point, the anesthesiologist can take the patient away from the parent and proceed into the operating room, where either an intravenous anesthetic or an inhaled sevoflurane anesthetic can be initiated.

 

MONITORING THE PATIENT:

  1. The patient should have all the same monitors an anesthesiologist would use in a hospital or a surgery center. This includes a pulse oximeter, an ECG, a blood pressure cuff, a monitor of the exhaled end-tidal carbon dioxide, and the ability to monitor temperature.
  2. The anesthesiologist is the main monitor. He or she will be vigilant to all vital signs, and to the Airway-Breathing-Circulation of the patient.

 

MAINTENANCE OF ANESTHESIA:

  1. Regardless of which anesthetic regimen is used, oxygen will be administered. Room air includes only 21% oxygen. The anesthesiologist will administer 30-50% oxygen or more as needed to keep the patient’s oxygen saturation >90%.
  2. Intravenous sedation: This may include any combination of IV midazolam, ketamine, propofol, or a narcotic such as fentanyl.
  3. Local blocks by the dentist. The dentist may inject local anesthesia at the base of the involved tooth, near the superior alveolar nerve to block all sensation to the upper teeth, or near the inferior alveolar nerve to anesthetize all sensation to the lower jaw.
  4. Inhaled nitrous oxide. The simplest inhaled agent is nitrous oxide, which is inexpensive and rapid acting. Used alone, nitrous oxide is not potent enough to make a patient fall asleep. Nitrous oxide can be used as an adjunct to any of the other anesthetic drugs listed in this column.
  5. Potent inhalation anesthesia (sevoflurane). Most dental offices will not have a machine to administer sevoflurane. (Every hospital operating room has an anesthesia machine which delivers sevoflurane vapor.) Portable anesthesia machines fitted with a sevoflurane vaporizer are available. A colleague of mine who worked full time as a roving physician anesthesiologist to multiple pediatric dental offices leased such a machine and used it for years. The advantages of sevoflurane are: i) few intravenous drugs will be necessary if the anesthesiologist uses sevo, and ii) the onset and offset of sevo is very fast—as fast as nitrous oxide. The administration of sevoflurane usually requires the use of a breathing tube, inserted into the patient’s windpipe.
  6. The anesthesiologist will be present during the entire anesthetic, and will not leave.

 

AWAKENING FROM ANESTHESIA:

  1. With intramuscular and/or intravenous drugs, the wake-up is dependent on the time it takes for the administered drugs to wear off or redistribute out of the blood stream. This may take 30-60 minutes or more following the conclusion of the anesthetic.
  2. With inhaled agents such as sevoflurane and nitrous oxide, the wake-up is dependent on the patient exhaling the anesthetic gas. The majority of the inhaled anesthetic effect is gone within 20-30 minutes after the anesthetic is discontinued.
  3. The patient must be observed and monitored until he or she is alert enough to be discharged from the medical facility. This can be challenging if a series of patients are to be anesthetized in a dentist’s office. The medical staff must monitor the post-operative patient and also attend to the next patient’s anesthetic care. It’s imperative that the earlier patient is awake before the anesthesiologist turns his full attention to the next patient.

 

THE ANESTHETIC FOR OUR CASE PRESENTATION ABOVE:

  1. The anesthesiologist meets the parents and the patient, and explains the anesthetic options and procedures to the parent. The parent then consents.
  2. The anesthesiologist prepares the dental operating room with all the necessary equipment in the mnemonic M-A-I-D-S, which stands for Monitors and Machine, Airway equipment, Intravenous line, Drugs, and Suction.
  3. The anesthesiologist injects the syringe of ketamine, midazolam, and atropine into the child’s deltoid muscle. The child becomes sleepy and limp within one minute, and the anesthesiologist carries the child into the operating room.
  4. All the vital sign monitors are placed, and oxygen is administered via a nasal cannula.
  5. An IV is started in the patient’s arm.
  6. The dentist begins the surgery. He or she may inject local anesthesia as needed to block pain.
  7. Additional IV sedation is administered with propofol, ketamine, midazolam, or fentanyl as deemed necessary.
  8. When the surgery is nearing conclusion, the anesthesiologist will stop the administration of any further anesthesia. When the surgery ends, the anesthesiologist remains with the patient until the patient is awake. The patient may be taken to a separate recovery room, but that second room must have an oxygen saturation monitor and a health care professional to monitor the patient until discharge.

CHALLENGES OF DENTAL OFFICE ANESTHESIA:

  1. You’re do all the anesthesia work alone. If you have an airway problem or an acute emergency, you’ll have no other anesthesia professional to assist you. Your only helpers are the dentist and the dental assistant.
  2. The cases are difficult, otherwise you wouldn’t be there at all. Every one of the patients will have some challenging medical issue(s).
  3. You have no preop clinic, so you don’t know what you’re getting into until you meet the patient. I’d recommend you telephone the parents the evening before, so you can glean the past medical and surgical histories, and so you can explain the anesthetic procedure. Nonetheless, you can’t evaluate an airway over the phone, and on the day of surgery you may encounter more challenge than you are willing to undertake.
  4. It’s OK to cancel a case and recommend it be done in a hospital setting if you aren’t comfortable proceeding.
  5. The anesthesiologist usually has to bring his or her own drugs. The narcotics and controlled substances need to be purchased and accounted for by the anesthesiologist with strict narcotic logs to prove no narcotics are being diverted for personal use. All emergency resuscitation drugs need to be on site in the dental office or brought in by the anesthesiologist.
  6. If a sevoflurane vaporizer is utilized, dantrolene treatment for Malignant Hyperthermia must be immediately available.

 

BENEFITS OF DENTAL OFFICE SEDATION AND GENERAL ANESTHESIA:

  1. The parents of the patients are grateful. The parents know how difficult dental care on their awake child has been, and they’re thankful to have the procedures facilitated in a dental office.
  2. The dentist and their staff are grateful. They don’t have a method to safely sedate such patients, and are thankful that you do.
  3. Most cases are not paid for by health insurance, rather they are cash pay in advance.

 

HOW SAFE IS ANESTHESIA AND SEDATION IN A DENTAL OFFICE?

No database can answer the question at present. In 2013 the journal Paediatric Anesthesia published a paper entitled Trends in death associated with pediatric dental sedation and general anesthesia. (1) The paper reported on children who had died in the United States following receiving anesthesia for a dental procedure between1980-2011. Most deaths occurred among 2-5 year-olds, in an office setting, and with a general or pediatric dentist (not a physician anesthesiologist or dental anesthesiologist) as the anesthesia provider. In this latter group, 17 of 25 deaths were linked with a sedation anesthetic.

Another study analyzed closed claims databases of 17 malpractice claims of adverse anesthesia events in pediatric patients in dental offices from 1992 – 2007. (2) Thirteen cases involved sedation, 3 involved local anesthesia alone, and 1 involved general anesthesia. 53% of the claims involved patient death or permanent brain damage. In these claims the average patient age was 3.6 years. Six cases involved general dentists as the anesthesia provider, and 2 involved local anesthesia alone. The adverse event occurred in the dental office in 71% of the claims. Of the 13 claims involving sedation, only 1 claim involved the use of vital sign monitoring. The study concluded that very young patients (≤ 3-years-old) were at greatest risk during administration of sedative and/or local anesthetic agents. The study concluded that some practitioners were inadequately monitoring patients during sedation procedures. Adverse events had a high chance of occurring at the dental office where care is being provided.

If general anesthesia or deep sedation are performed in a dental office, the anesthetist must practice with the same vigilance and standards of care as they would in a hospital or surgery center. Either a physician anesthesiologist, an oral surgeon (acting as both the dental surgeon and the anesthetist), or a dental anesthesiologist may perform the anesthesia. There are no data at this time to affirm that a physician anesthesiologist is the safest practitioner in this setting.

Note: This column addressed the office practice of pediatric dental anesthesia as seen from a physician anesthesiologist’s point of view.

References:

(1) Lee HH et al, Trends in death associated with pediatric dental sedation and general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth. 2013 Aug;23(8):741-6.

(2) Chicka MC et al, Adverse events during pediatric dental anesthesia and sedation: a review of closed malpractice insurance claims. Pediatr Dent.2012 May-Jun;34(3):231-8.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

 

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

41wlRoWITkL

LEARN MORE ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM BY CLICKING ON THE PICTURE BELOW:

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13 MAJOR CHANGES IN ANESTHESIOLOGY IN THE LAST TEN YEARS

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 2 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Latest posts by THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT (see all)

Let’s look at 13 major changes in the last ten years of anesthesiology, and give a letter grade to mark the significance of each advance:

final_ten_year_graphic_gif

 

SUGAMMADEX – The long awaited reversal agent for neuromuscular paralysis reached the market in 2016, and by my review, the drug is wonderful. I’ve found sugammadex to reverse rocuronium paralysis in less than a minute in every patient who has at least one twitch from a nerve stimulator. The dose is expensive at about $100 per patient, but at this time that’s cheaper than the acquisition costs for neostigmine + glycopyrrolate. The acquisition cost of neostigmine + glycopyrrolate at our facilities exceeds $100, and this combination of drugs can take up to 9 minutes to reverse rocuronium paralysis. Sugammadex reversal can make the duration of a rocuronium motor block almost as short acting as a succinylcholine motor block, and sugammadex can also eliminate complications in the Post Anesthesia Care Unit due to residual postoperative muscle paralysis. Grade = A.

 

SHORTAGES OF GENERIC INTRAVENOUS DRUGS – Over the last five years we’ve seen unexpected shortages of fentanyl, morphine, propofol, ephedrine, neostigmine, glycopyrrolate, meperidine, and atropine, to name a few. These are generic drugs that formerly cost pennies per ampoule. In the current marketplace, generic manufacturers have limited the supplies and elevated the prices of these medications to exorbitant levels. I wish I’d had the foresight and the money ten years ago to invest in a factory that produced generic anesthetic drugs. Grade = F.

 

THE PERIOPERATIVE SURGICAL HOME – The American Society of Anesthesiologists has been pushing this excellent concept for years now—the idea being that a team of physician anesthesiologists will manage all perioperative medical care from preoperative clinic assessment through discharge, including intraoperative care, postoperative care and pain management in the PACU, the ICU, and the hospital wards. The goal is improved patient care with decreased costs. It’s not clear the idea has widespread traction as of yet, and the concept will always be at odds with the individual aspirations of internal medicine doctors, hospitalists, intensivists, surgeons, and certified nurse anesthetists, all who want to make their own management decisions, and all who desire to be paid for owning those decisions. Grade = B-.

 

MULTIMODAL PAIN MANAGEMENT FOLLOWING TOTAL JOINT REPLACEMENTS – The development of pain management protocols which include neuroaxial blocks, regional anesthetic blocks, local anesthetic infiltration by surgeons, oral and intravenous pain medications, have advanced the science of pain relief for total knee and total hip replacements. The cooperation between surgeons, anesthesiologists, and internal medicine specialists to develop the protocols has been outstanding, the standardized checklist care has been well accepted, and patients are benefiting. Grade = A.

 

ULTRASOUND GUIDED REGIONAL ANESTHESIA – Regional anesthetic blocks are not new, but visualizing the nerves via ultrasound is. The practice is becoming widespread, and the analysis of economic and quality data is ongoing. Ultrasound guided regional anesthesia is a major advance for painful orthopedic surgeries, but I worry about overuse of the technique on smaller cases for the economic benefit of the physician wielding the ultrasound probe. A second concern is the additive risk of administrating two anesthetics (regional plus general) to one patient. I’ve reviewed medical records of patients with adverse outcomes related to regional blocks, and I’m concerned ultrasound guided regional anesthesia may be creating a new paradigm of postoperative complications, e.g. prolonged nerve damage or intravascular injection of local anesthetics. In the future I look forward to seeing years of closed claims data regarding this increasing use of regional anesthesia. Grade = B.

 

VIDEOLARYNGOSCOPY – The invention of the GlideScope and its competitors the C-MAC, King Vision, McGrath and Airtraq videolaryngoscopes was a major advance in our ability to intubate patients with difficult airways. My need for fiberoptic intubation has plummeted since videolaryngoscopy became available. I’d recommend that everyone who attempts traditional laryngoscopy for endotracheal intubation have access to a video scope as a backup, should traditional intubation prove difficult. Grade = A.

 

ANESTHESIOLOGIST ASSISTANTS (AAs) – The American Society of Anesthesiologists is championing the idea of training AAs to work with physician anesthesiologists in an anesthesia care team model. A primary reason is to combat the influence and rise in numbers of Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists (CRNAs) by inserting AAs as a substitute. Not a bad idea, but like the Perioperative Surgical Home, the concept of AAs is gaining traction slowly, and the penetration of AAs into the marketplace is minimal. To date there are only ten accredited AA education programs in the United States. Grade = B-.

 

CHECKLISTS – We now have pre-incision Time Outs, pre-induction Anesthesia Time Outs, and pre-regional anesthesia Block Time Outs. It’s hard to argue with these checklists. Even if 99.9% of the Time Outs change nothing, if 0.1% of the Time Outs identify a miscommunication or a laterality mistake, they are worth it. Grade = A.

 

ANESTHESIA ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORDS (EMRs)– The idea is sound. Everything in the modern world is digitalized, so why not medical records? The problem is the current product. There are multiple EMR systems, and the systems cannot communicate with each other. Can you imagine a telephone system where Sprint phones cannot communicate with AT&T phones? The current market leader for hospitals is Epic, a ponderous, expensive system that does little to make the pertinent information easier to find in medical charts. For acute care medicine such as anesthetic emergencies, the medical charting and documentation in Epic gets in the way of hands-on anesthesia care. In the past, when I administered 50 mg of rocuronium, I simply wrote “50” in the appropriate space on a piece of paper. In Epic I have to make at least 4 mouse clicks to do the same thing. This Epic entry cannot be made on a touch screen because the first rocuronium window on the touch screen is a three-millimeter-tall box, too small for a finger touch. I’d like to see Apple or Google develop better EMR software than we have at present. Perhaps the eventual winning product will be voice activated or will involve easy touch screen data entry and data access. And all EMR systems should interact with each other, so patient privacy medical information can be portable. Grade = C-.

 

THE ECONOMICS OF ANESTHESIA – When I began in private practice in 1986, most successful anesthesiologists joined a single-specialty anesthesia group. This group would cover a hospital or several hospitals along with nearby surgery centers and offices. The group would bill for physician services, and insurance companies would reimburse them. Each physician joining the group would endure a one or two-year tryout period, after which he or she became a partner. Incomes were proportional to the number of cases an individual attended to. The models are changing. Smaller anesthesia groups are merging into larger groups, better equipped to negotiate with healthcare insurers and ObamaCare. More and more healthcare systems are employing their own anesthesiologists. In a healthcare system, profits are pooled and shared amongst the varying specialists. This model is not objectionable. Anesthesiologists share the profits with less lucrative specialties such as internal medicine and pediatrics, but the anesthesiologists are assured a steady flow of patients from the primary care physicians and surgeons within the system. The end result is less income than in a single-specialty anesthesia group, but more security. Grade = B.

 

THE SPECTER OF A BAN ON BALANCE BILLING – In a perfect world all physician groups would be contracted with all health insurance companies, at a monetary rate acceptable to both sides. Unfortunately there are insurance company-physician group rifts in which an acceptable rate is not negotiated. In these instances, the physician provider for a given patient may be out of network with the patient’s insurer, not because of provider greed (as portrayed by some politicians and insurers) but because the insurance company did not offer a reasonable contracted rate. Some politicians believe physician out-of-network balance billing should be outlawed. This would give unilateral power to insurance companies. Why would an insurance company offer a reasonable rate to a physician provider group, if the insurance company can pay the physicians a low rate and the new law says the physicians have no alternative but to accept it as payment in full? The no-balance-billing politicians will portray patients as victims, but if they succeed in changing the laws, physicians will become victims. Physicians as well as consumers must unite to defeat this concept. Grade = F.

 

CORPORATE ANESTHESIA – National companies are buying multiple existing anesthesia groups and changing the template of our profession in America. The current physician owners of a practice can sell their group to a publically traded national company for a large upfront payoff. The future salaries of anesthesiologists of that group are then decreased, and the rest of the profit formerly garnered by the physicians goes instead to the bottom line of the national company’s shareholders. If this model becomes widespread, the profession of anesthesiology will morph into a job populated by moderately reimbursed employees. Grade = D.

 

INDEPENDENT PRACTICE FOR CRNAs – Anesthesiology is the practice of medicine. In a two-year training program, an ICU nurse can learn to administer propofol and sevoflurane, and how to intubate most patients, and become a CRNA. It takes a physician anesthesiologist to manage complex preoperative medical problems, intraoperative complications, and postoperative medical complications. I understand rural states such as Montana and the Dakotas cannot recruit enough physician anesthesiologists to hospitals in their smallest towns, but for states like California to legalize independent anesthesia practice for CRNAs is unconscionable. Grade = D.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

 

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

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LEARN MORE ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM BY CLICKING ON THE PICTURE BELOW:

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ANESTHESIA ERRORS: MALPRACTICE OR NOT?

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 1 Comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Latest posts by THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT (see all)

If a patient suffers a bad outcome after anesthesia, did the anesthesiologist commit malpractice? If there was an anesthesia error, was it anesthesia malpractice?

medical-malpractice-anesthesia-errors-1-638

Not necessarily. There are risks to every anesthetic and every surgery, and if a patient sustains a complication, it may or may not be secondary to substandard anesthesia care.

Let’s look at the most common reasons for anesthesia malpractice claims. In a study by Ranum,(1) researchers examined a total of 607 closed claims from a single national malpractice insurance company over five years between 2007 and 2012. The most frequent anesthesia-related injuries reported were:

  1.   Teeth damage — 20.8 percent of the anesthesia medical malpractice claims
  2.   Death — 18.3 percent
  3.   Nerve damage — 13.5 percent
  4.   Organ damage — 12.7 percent
  5.   Pain — 10.9 percent
  6.   Cardiopulmonary arrest — 10.7 percent

When the minor claims for teeth damage are omitted, claims for death and cardiopulmonary arrest account for nearly one in four closed claims for anesthesiologists. This shows the severe nature of anesthesia bad outcomes.

How can we discern whether a bad patient outcome is a risk for a malpractice claim?

There are four elements to a medical malpractice claim. They are as follows (2):

  1. Duty to care for the patient. The anesthesiologist must have made a contract to care for the patient. The anesthesiologist meets the patient, takes a history, reviews the chart, does a pertinent physical exam, and discusses the options for anesthetic care. The anesthesiologist then obtains informed consent from the patient to carry out that plan, and the duty to care for the patient is established.
  2. Negligence occurs if the anesthesiologist failed in his or her duty to care, that is, he or she performed below the standard of care. The standard of care is defined as the level of care expected from a reasonably competent anesthesiologist. If a lawsuit is eventually filed, anesthesiology expert witnesses will testify for both the defense and the plaintiff as to what the standard of care was for this case. If the defendant anesthesiologist performed below the standard of care, they are vulnerable to losing the lawsuit.
  3. The plaintiff must prove the negligence was a proximate cause of the injury to the patient. If a lawsuit is eventually filed, expert witnesses will argue how and why the negligence was linked or was not linked to the adverse outcome.
  4. The injury or loss can be measured in monetary compensation to the plaintiff.

Let’s look at two fictional case studies to demonstrate how a bad outcome may or may not be related to anesthesia malpractice:

CASE ONE: A 70-year-old man is scheduled to have laparoscopic abdominal surgery for a partial colectomy to remove a cancer in his large intestine. Prior to his surgery he has a complete history and physical by his internal medicine doctor, and the results of that workup are in the medical chart. The patient medical history is positive for hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and obesity. His Body Mass Index, or BMI, is elevated at 32. His blood pressure is 140/85, and his physical exam is otherwise unremarkable. Prior to the surgery, the anesthesiologist requests clearance from a cardiologist. The cardiologist performs an exercise stress echocardiogram, which is read as normal. The anesthesiologist plans a general anesthetic, and obtains informed consent from the patient. During the informed consent, the anesthesiologist tells the patient that risks involving the heart, the lungs, or the brain are small but not zero. The patient accepts these risks.

The surgery and anesthesia proceed uneventfully. The patient is awakened from general anesthesia and taken to the Post Anesthesia Care Unit. The patient is drowsy and responsive, with a blood pressure of 100/60, a heart rate of 95, a respiratory rate of 16, a temperature of 36.0 Centigrade, and an oxygen saturation of 96% on a face mask delivering 50% oxygen. A Bair Hugger blanket is applied to warm the patient, and morphine sulfate 2 mg IV is given for complaint of abdominal pain.

Thirty minutes later, the patient develops acute shortness of breath, and his oxygen saturation drops to 75%. The anesthesiologist sees him and evaluates him. The cause of the shortness of breath and drop in oxygen level are unclear. The concentration of administered oxygen is increased to 100%, but the patient acutely becomes unresponsive. The anesthesiologist intubates the patient’s trachea, and begins ventilating him through the breathing tube. The patient is still unresponsive and has a cardiac arrest. Despite all Advanced Cardiac Life Support treatments, the patient dies.

An expert witness later reviews the chart, and finds the anesthesia management to be within the standard of care prior to, during, and after the surgery. There was no negligence that caused the cardiac arrest. Why did the patient die? The post-mortem exam, or autopsy, in a case like this could show a pulmonary embolism or a myocardial infarction, either of which can occur despite excellent anesthesia care. The patient was elderly, overweight, and hypertensive. Abdominal surgery and general anesthesia in this patient population are not without risk, even with optimal anesthetic care.

CASE TWO: A 55-year old female is scheduled for a facelift at a freestanding plastic surgery center operating room. Her history and physical examination are normal except that she is 5 feet tall and weighs 200 pounds, for a BMI=39. The anesthesiologist plans a general anesthetic, and obtains informed consent from the patient. After the induction of general anesthesia with propofol and rocuronium, the anesthesiologist is unable to place the endotracheal tube in the patient’s windpipe. He tries repeatedly in vain, and during this time the woman’s oxygen saturation drops to dangerous levels below 70%, and remains low for over five minutes. He eventually places the tube successfully. The surgery is cancelled, and the woman fails to wake up. She is transferred to a local hospital and admitted to the intensive care unit. A neurologic workup confirms that she has anoxic brain damage, or brain death.

This is a case where an overweight but otherwise healthy woman walked into a surgery center for an elective surgery, and emerged brain dead. Per the donor card in the patient’s wallet, the family agreed to donate the patient’s organs. Was this outcome due to malpractice? Yes. The anesthesiologist performed below the standard of care, because he failed to keep the patient oxygenated during the multiple attempts to place the breathing tube. An expert witness for the plaintiff testifies that a reasonably competent anesthesiologist would understand and follow the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Difficult Airway Algorithm, and use alternate techniques to keep the patient oxygenated should the endotracheal tube placement be technically difficult. (These techniques include bag-mask ventilation, placement of a laryngeal mask airway, or use of a video laryngoscope). The failure to keep the airway open and the failure to keep the patient oxygenated led to the anoxic brain damage. An expert witness for the defense concurs with this opinion, and the anesthesiologist’s malpractice insurance company settles the case by paying the patient’s family.

Complications can occur before, during, or after anesthesia. The overwhelming majority of physician anesthesiologists manage their patients at or above the standard of care. When an adverse outcome occurs there may very well be no negligence or malpractice, and one should expect the legal system to award little or no malpractice award payments.

Does that mean that if the standards of care are adhered to, then there will be no malpractice payment following a bad outcome? Unfortunately, the data say no.

The ASA Closed Claims Project collects closed anesthesia malpractice claim results from the 1970s to the present. From 1975-79, 74% of anesthesia lawsuits resulted in payment. From 1990-99 this proportion declined to 58%. Much of this positive change may be explained by improvements in standards of care, i.e. the change to the routine monitoring of pulse oximetry and end-tidal carbon dioxide levels. In the 1970s, 51% of the lawsuits in which standards of care were met resulted in payment. In the 1990s only 40% of the lawsuits in which standards of care were met resulted in payment, but 40% is not zero.(3)

Other facts about medical malpractice lawsuits: About 93% of malpractice claims close without going to a trial. The average claim that goes to trial involves a 3 to 5 year process.(4) Of the cases that go to trial, 79% of verdicts are for the defendant physician.(5)

Medical errors do occur. Physicians are human. How common are medical errors in anesthesiology? It’s hard to quantitate. Medical errors that do not result in closed malpractice claims are not tabulated.

The issue of medical errors is currently a hot topic. A report published in the The British Medical Journal this week stated that if medical error was a disease, it would rank as the third leading cause of death in the United States, trailing only heart disease and cancer. Medical error was defined as an unintended act of either omission or commission, or one that does not achieve its intended outcome, the failure of a planned action to be completed as intended (an error of execution), the use of a wrong plan to achieve an aim (an error of planning), or a deviation from the process of care that may or may not cause harm to the patient. The authors calculated a mean rate of death from medical error of 251 ,454 cases per year. The authors pointed out that death certificates in the U.S., used to compile national statistics, currently have no facility for acknowledging medical error. The ICD-10 coding system has limited ability to record or capture most types of medical error. The authors recommended that when a medical error resulted in death, both the physiological cause of the death and the related problem with delivery of care should be captured.(6)

Do anesthesiologists commit any of these medical errors? Undoubtedly. What does this mean if you are a patient scheduled for surgery and anesthesia? You should have every expectation your board-certified physician anesthesiologist will practice at or above the standard of care. The chances that you will become an adverse outcome statistic are small, but those chances are not zero.

See my column Do Anesthesiologists Have the Highest Malpractice Insurance Rates? to learn more about malpractice risks and anesthesiologists.

References:

  1. Ranum D, et al, Six anesthesia-related medical malpractice claim statistics. Analysis of patient injury based on anesthesiology closed claims data from a major malpractice insurer, Journal of Healthcare Risk Management Volume 34,Issue 2,pages 31–42,
  2. Tsushima WT, Nakano KK, Effective Medical Testifying: A Handbook for Physicians, 1998, Butterworth-Heinemann.
  3. Posner KL: Data Reveal Trends in Anesthesia Malpractice Payments. ASA Newsletter68(6): 7-8 & 14, 2004.
  4. Chesanow N, Malpractice: When to Settle a Suit and When to Fight. Medscape Business of Medicine, Sept 25, 2013.
  5. Jena AB,, Outcomes of Medical Malpractice Litigation Against US Physicians. Arch Intern Med.2012 Jun 11;172(11).
  6. Makary MA, Daniel M, Medical Error—the Third Leading Cause of Death in the U.S., BMJ, 2016;353:i2139.

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 170/99?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

41wlRoWITkL

LEARN MORE ABOUT RICK NOVAK’S FICTION WRITING AT RICK NOVAK.COM BY CLICKING ON THE PICTURE BELOW:

DSC04882_edited

 

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Latest posts by THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT (see all)

You’re scheduled to anesthetize an NFL quarterback for a shoulder arthroscopy and rotator cuff repair. The patient earns $20 million dollars per year for throwing footballs. Would you feel comfortable inserting a needle into his neck to do a regional anesthetic? Would you feel comfortable doing an interscalene block on an NFL quarterback as part of his anesthetic?

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Regional anesthesia is a growing frontier in modern clinical anesthesia, in part because of the availability of ultrasonic imaging to help us direct needle placement. The subspecialty of regional anesthesia has blossomed. Listening to some of its disciples, it would seem that nearly every orthopedic surgery procedure can benefit from an ultrasonic regional block for intraoperative and postoperative pain control.

Anesthesiology News (Hardman D, July 2015, 41:7) recently reviewed the topic of nerve injury after peripheral nerve block. Data shows that the risk for permanent or severe nerve injury after peripheral nerve blocks is low. Per the article, the prevalence of permanent injury rates as defined by a neurologic abnormality present at or beyond 12 months after the procedure, ranges from 0.029% to 0.2%.

Low, but not zero.

There is a high incidence of temporary postoperative neurologic symptoms after arthroscopic shoulder surgery, whether the patient received a regional block or not. The incidence of temporary neurologic symptoms during the first week ranged as high as 16% to 30%. Most of these involved minor sensory symptoms such as paresthesias and dysesthesias.

An incidence of 16% to 30% is a remarkably high number.

Data from a clinical registry at the Mayo Clinic for total shoulder arthroplasty from 1993 to 2007 demonstrated a peripheral nerve injury rate of 3.7% following general anesthesia in contrast to a peripheral nerve injury rate of 1.7% in patients who received an interscalene block (Sviggum HP, et al. Perioperative nerve injury after total shoulder arthroplasty: assessment of risk after regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012;37:490-494). It’s striking that the patients with general anesthesia had MORE peripheral nerve injuries than patients who had an interscalene block.

Over 97% of the patients who developed peripheral nerve injury recovered completely or partially at 2.5 years after the procedure. Seventy-one percent experienced full recovery, which means that 29% did not experience full recovery.

Given this information, would you give the NFL quarterback a general anesthetic or would you include an interscalene block?

I submit that no anesthesia provider would feel comfortable inserting a needle in the neck of this $20 million-dollar-a-year man. No anesthesia provider would feel comfortable doing an interscalene block for his shoulder arthroscopy. Why not? Even though the above data show that peripheral nerve injury can occur following shoulder arthroscopy with either general or interscalene anesthesia, the anesthesiologist will likely be sued only if he or she performs the interscalene anesthesia.

A plaintiff lawyer will be quick to link the needle in the patient’s neck to the nerve damage, if the damages are the NFL player’s inability to earn his $20 million per year, and the anesthesiologist will be sued. If there is peripheral nerve injury following a general anesthetic, expect the surgeon to be sued.

It’s that simple. With peripheral nerve injury following general anesthesia, the surgeon will incur the medical malpractice risk because shoulder arthroscopy has its own risks for nerve injury. Risks include: 1) traction on the brachial plexus due to positioning during surgery, 2) irrigating fluid extravasation causing tissue edema compressing the brachial plexus and peripheral nerves, or 3) arthroscopic portals damaging nerves.

Ultrasound-guided blocks have many advantages, but there is no sufficient evidence demonstrating a lower neurologic complication rate with this technique.(Liu SS, et al. A prospective, randomized controlled trial comparing ultrasound versus nerve stimulator guidance for interscalene block for ambulatory shoulder surgery for postoperative neurological symptoms. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:265-271).

The explosion of regional anesthesia is relatively recent, and the medical malpractice fallout of this explosion is yet to be understood. We may find a trail of anesthesia closed claims related to nerve injuries that lasted over one year, especially if the patient did not receive explicit informed consent that permanent nerve damage was a risk of the nerve block.

If the risk of a limb-harming peripheral nerve injury is prohibitive for an NFL player, why is the risk acceptable for the rest of our patients? Is it because an accountant or a fireman who is a recreational tennis player or golfer is less likely to sue the anesthesiologist if a peripheral nerve injury occurs?

A 2007 survey of academic regional anesthesiologists indicated that nearly 40% of respondents did not disclose the risks of long-term and disabling neurologic injury prior to performing peripheral nerve blocks.( Brull R, et al. Disclosure of risks associated with regional anesthesia: a survey of academic regional anesthesiologists. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2007;32:7-11)

It’s more difficult to sell an “optional” peripheral nerve block if you disclose to the patient the risks for long-term nerve damage. However, if you do not disclose the risks of long-term nerve damage, you will be vulnerable to a lawsuit should nerve damage occur.

We’ll need to review the anesthesia closed claims data for peripheral nerve injuries in five or ten years time to see how many successful lawsuits were generated by the current crescendo in the performance peripheral nerve blocks. Until that time, I recommend honest and complete informed consent to all your patients regarding the non-zero risks of permanent nerve damage related to peripheral nerve blocks.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

41wlRoWITkL

Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

DSC04882_edited

 

 

WOULD YOU GIVE AN NFL QUARTERBACK A PERIPHERAL NERVE BLOCK?

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 4 Comments

SERIALIZATION OF THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN… CHAPTER TWO

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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2) A PHARMACIST’S SON IN SOUTH DAKOTA

Eight months earlier

My cell phone pinged with a text message from my son Johnny. The text read:

911 call me

I was administering an anesthetic to a 41-year-old woman in an operating room at Stanford University, while a neurosurgeon worked to remove a meningioma tumor from her brain. I stood near my patient’s feet in an anesthesia cockpit surrounded by two ventilator hoses, three intravenous lines, and four computer monitor screens. Ten syringes loaded with ten different drugs lay on the table before me. My job was to control my patient’s breathing, blood pressure, and level of unconsciousness, but at that moment I could only stare at my cell phone as my heart rate climbed.

                                                                       911 call me

911? My son was in trouble, and I was stuck in surgery, unable to leave. I wanted to contact Johnny as soon as possible, but my patient was asleep, paralyzed, and helpless. Her life was my responsibility. I scanned the operating room monitors and confirmed that her vital signs were perfect. I had to make a decision: should I call him now, or attend to my anesthetic and call after the surgery was over? My patient was stable, and my son was in danger. I pulled out my cell phone and dialed his number. He picked up after the first ring. “What is it, son?” I said.

“I’m screwed,” Johnny wailed. “I just got my report card for the first semester and my grades totally suck. Mom is mega-pissed. She’s going ballistic, and I’m screwed.”

My shoulders slumped. This was 911 for a 17-year-old? “How bad were the grades?”

“I got six B’s. I didn’t get one A. I just met with my counselor and he says I’m ranked #101 in my high school class. I’m so doomed. Mom is so pissed. She called me a lazy shit.”

I resisted my initial urge to scream at Johnny for scaring the hell out of me. The kid had no insight into what I did minute-to-minute in the hospital. Did he think his report card trumped my medical practice? Did he really think his report card full of B’s was an emergency?

“I’m not sure what’s worse, the grades or Mom’s screaming about the grades,” he said.

I imagined my wife having a temper tantrum about Johnny falling short of her straight-A’s standard of excellence, and I knew the answer to that question. My wife could be a total bitch. “I’m sorry Mom got mad, Johnny, but…”

“No buts, Dad. You know Mom’s idea of success is Ivy League or bust, and I’m a bust.”

“Son, four of your six classes are Advanced Placement classes, and those grades aren’t that bad.”

“Dad, almost everyone in the school takes four AP classes. Every one of my friends got better grades than me. Ray, Brent, Robby, Olivia, Jessica, Sammy, and Adrian all got straight A’s. Devon, Jackson, Pete, and Rod had all A’s and one B. Even Diego had only two B’s.”

“But you…”

Johnny cut me off. “There’s no ‘buts,’ Dad. I’m ranked in the middle of the pack in my class. I’m cooked. I’m ordinary. Forget Harvard and Princeton. I’m going to San Jose State.”

My stomach dropped. Johnny was halfway through his junior year at Palo Alto Hills High School. The competition for elite college acceptance was on my son’s mind every day, and on his mom’s mind every minute. Johnny was a bright kid, but the school stood across the street from Stanford University and was packed wall-to-wall with the sons and daughters of Stanford MBA’s, Ph.D.’s, lawyers, and doctors. Johnny’s situation wasn’t uncommon. You could be a pretty smart kid and still land somewhere in the middle of the class at P.A. Hills High.

“Everything will work out,” I said. “There are plenty of great colleges. You’ll see.”

“Lame, Dad. Don’t talk down to me. You stand there with your doctor job at Stanford and tell me that I’ll be all right. I’ll be the checkout guy at Safeway when you buy your groceries. That’s where I’m heading.”

Catastrophic thinking. Johnny Antone was holding a piece of paper in his hand—a piece of paper with some letters typed after his name—and he was translating it into an abject life of being average.

“Johnny, I can’t talk about this any more right now. My patient …”

“Whatever,” Johnny answered.

I heard a click as he hung up. I hated it when he did that. In the operating room I had authority, and respect was a given. With my family, I was a punching bag for of all sorts of verbal blows from both my kid and my wife.

I reached down and turned off my cell phone. For now, the haven of the operating room would insulate me against assaults from the outside world.

Judith Chang was the neurosurgeon that day. Dr. Chang was the finest brain surgeon in the western United States, and was arguably the most outstanding female brain surgeon on the planet. She peered into a binocular microscope hour after hour, teasing the remnants of the tumor away from the patient’s left frontal lobe. Dr. Chang always operated in silence, and her fingers moved in precise, calculated maneuvers. A 50-inch flat screen monitor on the wall of the operating room broadcast the image she saw from inside her microscope.

I paid little attention to the surgical images, which to me revealed nothing but incomprehensible blends of pink tissues. My full attention was focused on my own 42-inch monitor screen which depicted the patient’s electrocardiogram, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation, as well as the concentration of all gases moving in and out of her lungs. Everything was stable, and I was pleased.

It had been five hours since the initial skin incision. Dr. Chang pushed the microscope away and said, “We’re done. The tumor’s out.”

“A cure?” I said.

“There was no invasion of the tumor into brain tissue or bone. She’s cured.” Dr. Chang had removed a 5 X 10-centimeter piece of the patient’s skull to access the brain, and began the process of fitting the piece back into the defect in the skull—the placement not unlike finishing the last piece in a jigsaw puzzle. As Dr. Chang wired the bony plate into place, she said, “How’s your family, Nico?”

She hadn’t said a word to me in five hours, but once she was finished with the critical parts of surgery, Judith Chang had a reputation as a world-class chatterer. Some surgeons liked to listen to loud rock n’ roll “closing music” as they sewed up a patient. Some surgeons preferred to tell raunchy jokes. Judith Chang enjoyed the sound of her own voice. We hadn’t worked together for months, so we had a lot to catch up on.

“They’re good,” I said. “Johnny’s in 11th grade. He’s going to concerts, playing video games with friends, and sleeping until noon on weekends. Alexandra is working a lot, as usual. She just sold a house on your street.”

“I heard about that property,” Judith said. “You’re a lucky guy. That house sold for close to $5 million. Her commission is more than some doctors earn in a year. In my next lifetime I’ll be a big-time realtor like Alexandra. Does she give you half her income to spend?”

“In theory half that money is mine, but she invests the dough as soon as it hits her checking account.”

“Smart. Is Johnny looking at colleges yet?”

Her question had eerie relevance, because I’d been ruminating over Johnny’s phone call all morning. “That’s a sensitive point. Johnny just got his mid-year report card, and he’s freaking out.”

“How bad was it?”

“Six B’s. No A’s. He’s ranked #101 in a class of 480 students.” I spilled out the whole story while Dr. Chang twisted the wires together to affix the bony plate into the patient’s skull. I left out the “lazy shit” label from Johnny’s mom.

Dr. Chang had no immediate answer, and I interpreted her silence as tacit damning of Johnny’s fate. She opened her mouth and a flood of words began pouring out. “You know my twin daughters Meredith and Melody, who are sophomores at Stanford? They worked their butts off in high school. They were both straight-A students. Meredith captained the varsity water polo team, played saxophone in the jazz band, and started a non-profit charity foundation for an orphanage in Costa Rica. Melody was on the debate team and the varsity tennis team, and for three years she worked with Alzheimer patients at a nursing home in Palo Alto. Meredith and Melody were sweating bullets waiting to hear if Stanford would accept them, even though they were both legacies since I went to undergrad and med school here.

“The college admission game is a bitch, Nico. It’s not like when we were kids. It’s almost impossible to get into a great school without some kind of massive gimmick. It’s a fact that Harvard rejects 75% of the high school valedictorians that apply. Can you believe that?”

I could believe it. And I didn’t really care, since my only kid was at this moment freaking out because his grades qualified him for San Jose State, not the Ivy League. I didn’t care to hear any more about the Chang daughters right now, either. To listen to Judith Chang, her daughters were the second and third coming of Judith Chang, destined for world domination. I was envious of the Chang sisters’ academic successes—what parent wouldn’t be? But I didn’t want to compare them to my own son.

“What are Johnny’s test scores like?” Dr. Chang said.

Ah, a bright spot, I thought. “He’s always excelled at taking standardized tests. His SAT reading, math, and writing scores are all at the 98th percentile or better. His grade point average and class rank don’t match his test scores.”

“Does he have many extracurricular activities?”

“Johnny’s extracurricular activities consist mostly of watching TV and playing games on his laptop. At the same time,” I said, as if the combination of the two pastimes signaled a superior intellect.

Dr. Chang grew quiet again. More silent condemnation of my son’s prospects. “Listen to me,” she said. “My brother is a pharmacist in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. His son got accepted to Princeton, and let me tell you, my nephew isn’t that bright. His test scores aren’t anywhere near as high as Johnny’s. But he just happens to live in South Dakota. He just happens to be a straight-A student in a rural state. He just happens to be one of the best students in South Dakota.”

“How much do you think that matters?”

“It matters big time. The top schools want geographic variety in their student body. Stanford wants diversity. The Ivy League wants diversity. Princeton can find fifty kids from Palo Alto who meet their admission requirements. They want kids from all walks of life. They want … the son of a pharmacist from Podunk, South Dakota. If Johnny lived in South Dakota, with those test scores he’d be a shoo-in with the Ivy League admissions committees.”

Judith Chang turned her back on the operating room table, and peeled off her surgical gloves. The bony plate was back in place, and her patient’s skull was intact again. The surgical resident would conclude the task of sewing the skin closed. Dr. Chang paused for a moment, turned her palms upward, and said, “Just move to the Dakotas, Nico.”

I stroked my chin. She made it sound so easy.

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

41wlRoWITkL

Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

DSC04882_edited

 

 

INEXPERIENCED DOCTORS, OVERCONFIDENT DOCTORS, AND YOU

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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THE JULY EFFECT AND THE NOVEMBER EFFECT: In American teaching hospitals, newly minted doctors begin internships each July. The term “July Effect” was coined to describe this shift change in academic hospitals each July, when the arrival of inexperienced doctors may increase the risks of medical care. In the United Kingdom, newly minted doctors begin their internships each August. In Britain, August has been referred to as the “Killing Season,” because of a perceived increased risk of medical complications, morbidity, and mortality with new doctors during their first month on duty.

In American teaching hospitals, newly minted doctors begin internships each July. The term “July Effect” was coined to describe this shift change in academic hospitals each July, when the arrival of inexperienced doctors may increase the risks of medical care. In the United Kingdom, newly minted doctors begin their internships each August. In Britain, August has been referred to as the “Killing Season,” because of a perceived increased risk of medical complications, morbidity, and mortality with new doctors during their first month on duty.

Phillips found medication errors increased 10% during the month of July at American teaching hospitals, but not at neighboring community hospitals (1). In England, an Imperial College London study of records for 300,000 patients at 170 hospitals from 2000 and 2008 found death rates were 6% higher on the first Wednesday in August than on the previous Wednesday (2).

Multiple other studies have shown no change in mortality in American teaching hospitals in July, but the July Effect has real elements. There’s no way the competence of an academic hospital’s physician staff on July 1st can compare with that same hospital’s staff on June 30th. In the specialty of internal medicine, a residency is three years long (the first year of residency is also referred to as an internship). Each July 1st, third-year residents graduate and new medical school graduates replace one-third of the internal medicine team.

Imagine if a corporation like Google, Apple, Facebook, or General Electric dismissed one-third of their workforce once a year. There ‘s no way a company could be as productive after the change.

An anesthesia residency is three years long, preceded by one year of internship. One year after medical school, the same graduate who just completed twelve months of internship now reaches perhaps an even more difficult transition—the first months of anesthesia residency. Instead of writing histories, examining patients, making diagnoses, and prescribing medications as interns and internal medicine doctors do, anesthesia residents are rendering their patients unconscious, applying acute pharmacology, and inserting tubes and needles into patients in operating rooms at all hours of the day and night.

On July 1st of the first day of my anesthesia residency I reported at 0630 hours to the San Jose, California county hospital where I was assigned. I walked into the operating room and stared at the collection of anesthesia apparatus with complete bewilderment. I had no idea how the patient would even be connected to the anesthesia machine. As it turned out, the hoses that exited the machine weren’t installed yet, because I’d arrived before the anesthesia technicians who stocked the operating rooms. When it was time to begin the first anesthetic, the attending faculty anesthesiologist said to me, “I don’t think the operating room is a good place to learn in the beginning.” He injected sodium pentothal into the patient’s IV, placed the breathing tube into the patient’s windpipe, and hooked the patient up to the anesthesia machine. After ten minutes, he left to pursue other duties. I was alone, under-informed, and full of dread. I was on call that same night, and spent twenty-four hours in the hospital enduring case after case until six the next morning. When I left the hospital I had some rudimentary knowledge of how an anesthetic was done, but I’d failed to successfully place a breathing tube into any patient’s windpipe myself—a faculty member had to do every procedure for me. At the conclusion of the last anesthetic, I turned off the isoflurane (the predominant gas anesthetic at the time), switched off the ventilator, and waited, wondering why the patient wasn’t waking up. Many days later I learned that the isoflurane had no way to escape the patient’s lungs or brain unless I kept the ventilator on and continued ventilation of the patient’s lungs.

Anesthesia education today has improved since the 1980’s when I was a first-year resident, but the same themes persist. First-month trainees are very inexperienced. A supervising attending must teach them, mentor them, and lecture them—case by case—until each resident learns the basic skills.

Every month during anesthesia residency, the calendar turns to a new page and a new set of challenges. New rotations include specialty services in obstetrical anesthesia, pediatric anesthesia, trauma anesthesia, cardiac anesthesia, or regional block anesthesia. The most complex cases are saved for the second and third years of residency, but first-year residents will rotate through perhaps 80% of the array of cases during their first twelve months. During the earliest months of training, first-year anesthesia residents gain skills in the basic tasks of placing breathing tubes, intravenous lines, spinal blocks, epidural blocks, and arterial lines. They begin to feel confidence, and the anxiety of July fades.

It’s best if the jitters never fade away completely.

In my fifth year as an anesthesiologist, I was an attending at Stanford University, and I greeted one of my senior colleagues outside the locker room one morning. I asked him how he was doing, and he said, “I’m OK except for the customary pre-anesthesia anxiety.”

“What do you mean?” I said.

“Every morning I have to cope with the reality of what I do. I’m taking patients’ lives into my hands, and I can’t screw up.”

Think about that. Those workers at Google, Apple, Facebook, or General Electric have work pressures, but none of them has anxiety that they could harm a patient’s life forever.

Beyond the July Effect is the “November Effect.” The November Effect is the time when a physician feels confidence—even cockiness—and senses that they are well trained, experienced, in control, and can handle almost anything. The path to the November Effect is circuitous and the timing is variable. When I was an anesthesia resident, several of my colleagues never got there. One colleague succumbed to the stress of late night emergency anesthesia induction. He described to me the ordeal of trying to place a breathing tube urgently into a surgical patient who had a belly full of pizza and beer. I still remember the anesthesiologist’s face as he told the story. His eyes bugged out, his cheeks were pale, and he said, “I underestimated this specialty. I can’t do this for a whole career.” He quit. A second colleague had a near-disaster during the induction of anesthesia for an emergency Cesarean section. His anesthesia machine had no oxygen flow, so he blew into the mother’s breathing tube with his own mouth to keep the patient oxygenated. The patient and her baby survived, but his assessment was, “I can’t do this as a career. I need something less stressful.” He quit, too.

In November of my second year as an anesthesia resident I had 16 months of anesthesia training under my belt. I’d gained the swagger that comes with accomplishment, and lost some of the respect for the dangers of my specialty. I was on call in the hospital for obstetrics one night, and I tried to handle an emergency Cesarean section surgery at 1 a.m. by myself before my anesthesia faculty member arrived to assist me. I’ve chronicled the tale in a previous column (http://theanesthesiaconsultant.com/2012/07/15/an-anesthesia-anecdote-an-inept-anesthesia-provider-can-kill-a-patient-in-less-than-two-minutes). I was unable to place the patient’s breathing tube, she ran out of oxygen, and I thought I’d killed both her and her baby. My attending arrived in the nick of time, entered the operating room donned in his street clothes, and saved the day for all of us.

It was November, not July. I didn’t think I was a novice, but I was. It takes years, maybe a lifetime, to become an expert at anesthesia. Per Malcolm Gladwell’s book Outliers it takes 10,000 hours to become an expert at anything. For the specialty of anesthesia, even if one works 60 hours a week—which translates to about 3000 hours a year—it will take more than three years time to become an expert.

Even after those 10,000 hours, every patient presents a unique opportunity for events to stray from routine. Any case could go awry—there could be an unanticipated allergic reaction, an unexpected surgical bleed, an airway emergency or a mistaken diagnosis. Safe anesthesia practice demands a respectful level of anxiety at all times. Like a Boy Scout, an anesthesiologist needs to be prepared at all times.

Physician overconfidence is a current area of study. Meyer looked at 118 physicians who were each given 4 cases to diagnose (3). Two cases were easy and two were difficult, and the physicians were also asked how confident they were that they’d made the correct diagnosis. The physicians got 55% of the diagnoses correct for the two easier cases, and only 5% of the diagnoses correct for the more difficult cases. On a scale of 0-10, physicians rated their confidence as 7.2 on average for the easier cases, but as 6.4 on average for the more difficult cases. Physicians still had a very high level of confidence, even though their diagnostic accuracy dropped to a mere 5%. This was a striking statistic. Even physicians who are fully trained can be overconfident and can make misdiagnoses. Further data regarding physician overconfidence and how to correct it are welcomed.

An anesthesiologist’s work requires rapid, complex decisions that can be very susceptible to decision errors. Anesthesiologists work in a complex environment in the operating room, a setting where there is little room for mistakes. In acute care medicine, be it in the operating room, the emergency room, a battlefield, or an intensive care unit, the correct management of Airway-Breathing-Circulation is imperative to keep patients alive and well. Errors, be they caused by inexperience or overconfidence, can result in dire complications.

What does this mean for you?

If you’re a patient be wary of inexperienced doctors at a teaching hospital, especially in July and August. You might bring a friend or family member as a patient advocate to assure that more senior and experienced attending physicians are involved in your case. If you’re a patient and dealing with a confident doctor, be aware that confidence is not always well founded. Be skeptical of overconfidence and ask questions.

If you’re an anesthesiologist, look inward and assess whether you’re inexperienced or whether you tend toward overconfidence. Know yourself and better yourself. If you are inexperienced, then gain experience. If you tend to be overconfident, then humble yourself before the practice of medicine humbles you.

References:

(1) Phillips DP et al, A July Spike in Fatal Medication Errors: A Possible Effect of New Medical Residents; J Gen Intern Med, May 2010;25(8): 774–779.

(2) Will patients really die this week because of new NHS hospital doctors? The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2013.

(3) Meyer ND et al, Physician’s Diagnostic Accuracy, Confidence, and Resource Requests, JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(21):152-58.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

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Published in September 2017:  The second edition of THE DOCTOR AND MR. DYLAN, Dr. Novak’s debut novel, a medical-legal mystery which blends the science and practice of anesthesiology with unforgettable characters, a page-turning plot, and the legacy of Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan.

KIRKUS REVIEW

In this debut thriller, tragedies strike an anesthesiologist as he tries to start a new life with his son.

Dr. Nico Antone, an anesthesiologist at Stanford University, is married to Alexandra, a high-powered real estate agent obsessed with money. Their son, Johnny, an 11th-grader with immense potential, struggles to get the grades he’ll need to attend an Ivy League college. After a screaming match with Alexandra, Nico moves himself and Johnny from Palo Alto, California, to his frozen childhood home of Hibbing, Minnesota. The move should help Johnny improve his grades and thus seem more attractive to universities, but Nico loves the freedom from his wife, too. Hibbing also happens to be the hometown of music icon Bob Dylan. Joining the hospital staff, Nico runs afoul of a grouchy nurse anesthetist calling himself Bobby Dylan, who plays Dylan songs twice a week in a bar called Heaven’s Door. As Nico and Johnny settle in, their lives turn around; they even start dating the gorgeous mother/daughter pair of Lena and Echo Johnson. However, when Johnny accidentally impregnates Echo, the lives of the Hibbing transplants start to implode. In true page-turner fashion, first-time novelist Novak gets started by killing soulless Alexandra, which accelerates the downfall of his underdog protagonist now accused of murder. Dialogue is pitch-perfect, and the insults hurled between Nico and his wife are as hilarious as they are hurtful: “Are you my husband, Nico? Or my dependent?” The author’s medical expertise proves central to the plot, and there are a few grisly moments, as when “dark blood percolated” from a patient’s nostrils “like coffee grounds.” Bob Dylan details add quirkiness to what might otherwise be a chilly revenge tale; we’re told, for instance, that Dylan taught “every singer with a less-than-perfect voice…how to sneer and twist off syllables.” Courtroom scenes toward the end crackle with energy, though one scene involving a snowmobile ties up a certain plot thread too neatly. By the end, Nico has rolled with a great many punches.

Nuanced characterization and crafty details help this debut soar.

Click on the image below to reach the Amazon link to The Doctor and Mr. Dylan:

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Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

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IS ANESTHESIA AN ART OR A SCIENCE?

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THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Is the practice of anesthesia an art or a science? Is the practice of medicine an art or a science?Over one hundred years ago the father of modern medicine, Dr. William Osler of Johns Hopkins Medical Center, made the following statements: “Medicine is a science of uncertainty and an art of probability,” and “The practice of medicine is an art, based on science.”

 

In my career I’ve practiced three specialties at Stanford: internal medicine, emergency medicine, and anesthesiology. My career has bridged clinics, operating rooms, intensive care units, emergency rooms, and helicopter trauma medicine. I’ve practiced in four different decades.

With all respect to Dr. Osler’s legacy, what I’m witnessing in the clinical arena today tells me 21st century medical practice will be very much about science and very little about art.

A Merriam-Webster dictionary definition of science reads “knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments and observation.”

An Oxford English dictionary definition of art reads “the various branches of creative activity, such as painting, music, literature, and dance.”

Which of these definitions best fits your medical practice?

To me, the answer is clearly “science.”

I searched through all the secondary definitions of “art” in multiple dictionaries, and found very few definitions of “art” that apply to the practice of medicine. The closest fits were: art is a skill or special ability e.g. a skill at doing a specified thing, typically one acquired through practice, from the Oxford English Dictionary; or art is skill acquired by experience, study, or observation e.g. the art of making friends, from the Merriam-Webster dictionary.

Medical school training consists of four years of intensive study of anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, microbiology, pathology, diseases, and the treatment for diseases. Core classes require extensive memorization and comprehension of complex scientific facts. In the last two years of medical school, clinical classes require the student to apply this complex science while evaluating individual human patients. New skills acquired at this clinical stage are those of interviewing, history taking, physical examination, interpretation of medical test results, differential diagnosis, and application of appropriate therapies. Mastering the doctor-patient interaction requires an education in empathy, effective listening, respect, and conversation about complex medical topics using parlance non-medical laypersons can comprehend.

Creative activities such as painting, music, literature, and dance are absent from the preceding paragraph. There is an “art” to making the correct diagnosis, and there is an “art” to applying empathy, effective listening, respect, and conversing about complex medical topics in language non-medical laypersons can comprehend. In this context, “art” connotes those secondary definitions, as in “a skill at doing a specified thing, typically one acquired through practice.” A talented doctor with years of experience is a skilled artist of medical practice, just as World Series hero Madison Baumgartner is a skilled artist of pitching baseballs. A student entering a career in medicine in the 21st century must prepare herself or himself for the scientific rigors of the job. The opportunity to create is largely absent.

Painters, musicians, authors, and dancers create original art, some of it fantastic and some mundane. In medicine this type of creativity is rare, but it does exist. The medical laboratory researchers who cured smallpox and polio changed the world by creating their discoveries. The medical researchers seeking cures for Alzheimer’s disease, Ebola, or HIV are in a constant quest for the discovery of original ideas. Physician authors such as the Bay Area’s Abraham Verghese (Cutting for Stone) and Khaled Hosseini, (The Kite Runner) wrote outstanding literary works and are very creative. Many physicians express creative skills in their hobbies as musicians, artists, sculptors, actors, dancers, and writers. These physicians earn their living with their primary jobs in medicine, and expend their creative energies in these secondary outlets in their spare time.

A generation ago the ideal physician may have been depicted in the persona of Dr. Marcus Welby, a fictional television doctor. Dr. Welby was the Atticus Finch of medicine, a kind, smiling, gray-haired physician who spent each week’s sixty-minute show working on healing and treating one patient’s problems. His heroic skills were wisdom, intelligence, empathy, and a steadfast dedication to that one patient for the entire TV show each week. Although he was portrayed as a savvy, highly-schooled professional, Dr. Welby thrived by an almost god-like ability to feel his way through a difficult case and create a workable diagnosis and solution. In Dr. Welby’s office practice each patient posed a dilemma he had to solve during an hour-long television episode. In today’s office practice each patient’s complaints must be addressed in a twenty-minute period of time, after which the physician must enter all the information into a cumbersome version of a computerized Electronic Medical Record (EMR) before meeting the next patient for the next twenty-minute encounter.

In the 21st century operating room practice of anesthesiology, we typically have ten minutes to talk to a patient prior to rendering them unconscious. After anesthetic induction the patient is changed into a sleeping human who carries objective values for blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, temperature, and exhaled gas concentrations. The practice of anesthesiology becomes very much like a physiology experiment with the twin goals for the patient of a) guaranteeing sleep, while b) striving to maintain perfect vital signs. Where is the art? Is there art in varying techniques to accomplish these goals? Is it an “art” to anesthetize shoulder arthroscopy patient #1 with propofol and sevoflurane, and then to anesthetize shoulder arthroscopy patient #2 with propofol and an interscalene block? Rather than “art,” I’d call this using clinical judgment based on experience and scientific information.

Let me point out several current trends which are moving physician jobs further away from any creativity:

1) The organization of medicine into large corporate practices, with the variability of practice minimized. I recently attended a clinical lecture Stanford Medical Center in which the topic was “Variation is the Enemy of Good.”

2) The goal of organizing patient management into detailed and specific algorithms for physicians to follow, to insure they’re all treating the same medical problems the same way. In the Forbes article Medicine Is An Art, Not A Science: Medical Myth Or Reality?(July 12, 2014), author Robert Pearl MD, the CEO of the Permanente Medical Group, describes the value of protocols for the operating room, for treatment of stroke, and for prevention of heart attack, and concludes “We can predict that doctors who today refuse to follow the national recommendations for treating patients with strokes, heart attacks and a variety of other medical problems will be hard to convert. But we must change their behavior. The health of their patients and our nation depends on it.” Examples of such protocols in anesthesia practice are algorithms introduced for the management of total knee and hip replacement anesthesia, using a combination of neuroaxial block, regional nerve block such as adductor canal block, plus multimodal pain medication regimens (Gandhi and Viscusi, Multimodal Pain Management Techniques in Hip and Knee Arthroplasty, The New York School of Regional Anesthesia (www.nysora.com) Volume 13, J u l y 2009, pages 1-10).

3) A move to a “shift work” mentality in modern medical practice. A generation ago an MD would follow up on his patients until all the work was done for a given day, in addition to being night on-call for patients of his partners or colleagues once a week. In the past I worked for the largest HMO in California. The HMO culture promoted a 40-hour-per-week shift work mentality for physicians. When three p.m. arrived, many doctors signed off to the next doctor coming on duty to take over their job.

4) The promotion of non-physicians into the workforce to perform roles previously handled by MDs. Due to an inadequate supply of primary care doctors, the future of clinic medicine in large corporate medical practices will likely be legions of nurse practitioners and/or physician assistants supplying much of primary care.

5) Pursuit of artificial intelligence in medicine (AIM) as a goal. A recent Wall Street Journal article, IBM Crafts a Role for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: Deal for Merge Healthcare is step toward training IBM’s Watson software to identify cancer, heart disease (August 11, 2015) described a significant advance in AIM technology. It’s not hard to imagine artificial intelligence computers making diagnoses and treatment decisions in the future.

Are these trends bad? Time will tell. The trends are driven by economics, and don’t expect to see them reverse. Variability will decrease and so will the feeling that medicine is an art.

Let’s hope future generations of physicians will still quote Osler’s claim that “the practice of medicine is an art, based on science.” May empathy, effective listening, respect, and conversation always be critical skills envied and mastered by all physicians.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

 

Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

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ROBOT ANESTHESIA II

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 3 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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Are anesthesiologists on the verge of being replaced by a new robot? In a word, “No.” The new device being discussed is the iControl-RP anesthesia robot.

THE iCONTROL-RP ANESTHESIA ROBOT

On May 15, 2015, the Washington Post published a story titled, “We Are Convinced the Machine Can Do Better Than Human Anesthesiologists.”

In recent years there have been significant advances in the automated delivery of the intravenous anesthetic drugs propofol and remifentanil. (Orliaguet GA, Feasibility of closed-loop titration of propofol and remifentanil guided by the bispectral monitor in pediatric and adolescent patients: a prospective randomized study, Anesthesiology 2015 Apr;122(4):759-67). Propofol is an ultra-short-acting hypnotic drug that causes sleep. Remifentanil is an ultra-short-acting narcotic that relieves pain. Administered together, these drugs induce what is referred to as Total Intravenous Anesthesia, or TIVA. Total Intravenous Anesthesia is a technique anesthesiologists use when they choose to avoid using inhaled gases such as sevoflurane and nitrous oxide. Anesthesiologists administer TIVA by adjusting the flow rates on two separate infusion pumps, one infusion pump containing each drug.

A closed-loop system is a machine that infuses these drugs automatically. These systems include several essential items: The first is a processed electroencephalogram (EEG) such as a bi-spectral monitor (BIS monitor) attached to the patient’s forehead which records a neurologic measure of how asleep the patient is. The BIS monitor calculates a score between 0 and 100 for the patient’s level of unconsciousness, with a score of 100 corresponding to wide awake and 0 corresponding to a flat EEG. A score of 40 – 60 is considered an optimal amount of anesthesia depth. The second and third essential items of a closed-loop automated system are two automated infusion pumps containing propofol and remifentanil. A computer controls the infusion rate of a higher or lower amount of these drugs, depending on whether the measured BIS score is higher or lower than the 40- 60 range.

Researchers in Canada have expanded this technology into a device they call the iControl-RP, which is in clinical trials at the University of British Columbia. The iControl-RP is a closed-loop system which makes its own decisions. The initials RP stand for the two drugs being titrated: remifentanil and propofol. In addition to monitoring the patient’s EEG level of consciousness (via a BIS monitor device called NeuroSENSE), this new device monitors traditional vital signs such as blood oxygen levels, heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure, to determine how much anesthesia to deliver.

Per published information on their research protocol, the iControl-RP allows either remifentanil or propofol to be operated in any of three modes: (1) closed-loop control based on feedback from the EEG as measured by the NeuroSENSE; (2) target-controlled infusion (TCI), based on previously-described pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic models; and (3) conventional manual infusion, which requires a weight-based dose setting. (Reference: Closed-loop Control of Anesthesia: Controlled Delivery of Remifentanil and Propofol Dates, Status, Enrollment Verified by: Fraser Health, August 2014, First Received: January 15, 2013, Last Updated: March 5, 2015, Phase: N/A, Start Date: February 2013, Overall Status: Recruiting, Estimated Enrollment: 150).

In Phase 1 of the iControl-RP testing involving 50 study subjects, propofol will be administered in closed-loop mode and a remifentanil infusion will be administered based on a target-controlled infusion. In phase 2 involving 100 study subjects, both propofol and remifentanil will be administered in closed-loop mode. The investigators aim to demonstrate that closed-loop control of anesthesia and analgesia based on EEG feedback is clinically feasible.

In both phases, an anesthesiologist will monitor the patient as per routine practice and have the ability to modify the anesthetic or analgesic drugs being administered. That is, he or she will be able to adjust the target depth of hypnosis, adjust the target effect site concentration for remifentanil, immediately switch to manual control of either infusion, administer a bolus dose, or immediately stop the infusion of either drug. iControl-RP is connected to the NeuroSENSE EEG monitor, the two infusion pumps for separately controlled propofol and remifentanil administration, and the operating room patient vital signs monitor. A user interface allows the anesthesiologist to set the target EEG depth level, switch between modes of operation (manual, target-controlled infusion, or closed-loop), and set manual infusion rates or target effect-site concentrations for either drug as required.

Per the article in the Washington Post. (Todd C. Frankel, Washington Post, May 15, 2015), one of the machine’s co-developers Mark Ansermino, MD said, “We are convinced the machine can do better than human anesthesiologists.” The iControl-RP has been used to induce deep sedation in adults and children undergoing general surgery. The device had been used on 250 patients so far.

Why is this robotic device only a small step toward replacing anesthesiologists?

A critical realization is that anesthetizing patients requires far more skill than merely titrating two drug levels. Every patient requires (1) preoperative assessment of all medical problems from the history, physical exam, and laboratory evaluation of each individual patient, so that the anesthesiologist can plan and prescribe the appropriate anesthesia type; (2) placement of an intravenous line through which the TIVA drugs may be administered; (3) mask ventilation of an unconscious patient (in most cases), followed by placement of an airway tube to control the delivery of oxygen and ventilation in and out of the patient’s lungs; (4) observation of all vital monitors during surgery, with the aim of directing the diagnosis and treatment of any complication that occurs as a result of anesthesia or the surgical procedure; (5) removal of the airway tube at the conclusion of most surgeries, and (6) the diagnosis and treatment of any complication in the newly awake patient following the anesthetic.

In the future, closed-loop titration of drugs may lessen an anesthesiologist’s workload and free him or her for other activities. In the distant future, closed-loop titration of drugs may free a solitary anesthesiologist to initiate and monitor multiple anesthetics simultaneously from a control booth via multiple video screens and interface displays. But the handling of all tasks (1) – (6) by an automated robotic device is still the stuff of science fiction. The Washington Post article said an early role for the machine could be in war zones or remote areas where an anesthesiologist is unavailable. One could conjecture that a closed-loop anesthesia system may be used to facilitate surgery in outer space some day as well.

In either case, an anesthesiologist or some other highly-trained medical professional will still be required on site to achieve tasks (1) – (6).

The iControl-RP has not been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

The iControl-RP team has struggled to find a corporate backer for its project. Dr. Ansermino, the anesthesiologist inventor in Vancouver, told the Washington Post, “Most big companies view this as too risky,” but he believed a device like this was inevitable. “I think eventually this will happen,” Ansermino told the Washington Post, “whether we like it or not.”

That may be, but I suspect companies are risk averse regarding the iControl-RP because investment is guided by analysts and physicians who must consider the practical applications and risks of any new medical device. The issues of leaving (1) – (6) up to a robotic device are impractical at best, and dangerous to the patient at worse.

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

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BLOOD PRESSURE DROPS TO 85/45 FOLLOWING THE INDUCTION OF ANESTHESIA: WHAT DO YOU DO?

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT Leave a comment
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
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CLINICAL CASE: You’re scheduled to anesthetize a healthy 55-year-old female for an appendectomy. Her blood pressure is 150/90 on admission. In the operating room, you induce anesthesia with your standard recipe of 2 mg of midazolam, 100 mcg of fentanyl, 200 mg of propofol, and 40 mg of rocuronium, and intubate the trachea. Five minutes after induction and 15-30 minutes before the surgical incision will occur, her blood pressure drops to 85/45. Is this a problem? What will you do? What level of hypotension is acceptable to you?

Low blood pressure in surgery

DISCUSSION: During surgery, anesthesiologists balance their administration of drugs to the level of surgical stimulation the patient is experiencing. The placement of an endotracheal tube is an intense stimulus to an awake patient, but only a moderate stimulus to an anesthetized patient. After the placement of an endotracheal tube, a lag time of fifteen minutes to thirty minutes or more occurs prior to surgical incision. During this interval, the blood pressure sometimes sags.

Let’s look at the anesthesia literature to learn what has been described about this problem.

David Reich, et al of Mt. Sinai Hospital in New York queried the computerized anesthesia records of 4,096 patients undergoing general anesthesia and analyzed the incidence of hypotension in the period immediately after induction. (Predictors of hypotension after induction of general anesthesia Anesth Analg. 2005 Sep;101(3):622-8). The median blood pressure (MAP) was determined before anesthesia induction, during the first 5 minutes after induction, and also the period from 5-10 minutes after induction. Hypotension was defined as either (1) a mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) decrease of >40% and MAP

Statistically significant predictors of hypotension after anesthetic induction included: ASA III-V, baseline MAP

Dr. Reich wrote, “association with mortality alone was not reported in the manuscript but was nearly statistically significant (P = 0.066). The majority of our colleagues apparently believe that transient hypotension is inconsequential to outcomes. Although limited by the problems associated with retrospective studies, the results of our study provide preliminary evidence that runs counter to the prevailing wisdom regarding transient severe hypotension during general anesthesia.”

What level of hypotension is unsafe for patients?

The effects of hypotension in nonsurgical subjects was studied in 1954 (Finnerty, FA, Cerebral Hemodynamics during Cerebral Ischemia Induced by Acute Hypotension1 Clin Invest. 1954 Sep; 33(9): 1227–1232). Young and old experimental subjects were subjected to increasing degrees of hypotension until clinical signs of cerebral ischemia developed. Hypotension was induced by intravenous administration of the anti-hypertensive medication hexamethonium. The authors discovered a linear relation between pre-hypotensive blood pressure and the level of induced hypotension that produced clinical signs of cerebral ischemia such as yawning, sighing, staring, confusion, inability to concentrate, inability to perform simple commands, nausea, dizziness, and involuntary body movements. Their data revealed that the safe level of hypotension was no lower than about 2/3 of the resting blood pressure before inducing hypotension. At 2/3 of their pre-procedure MAP, patients reached a threshold of clinical cerebral ischemia, with onset of yawning, sighing, staring, confusion, inability to concentrate, and inability to carry out simple commands. Because these studies were done on unanesthetized humans, it’s impossible to equate the data to patients with surgical anesthesia. Surgical patients have a different etiology for their hypotension, as well as reduced cerebral oxygen consumption from general anesthetic drugs. This explains why most surgical patients fail to manifest any cerebral damage resulting from episodes of hypotension occasionally following the induction of anesthesia.

The problem of hypotension and refractory hypotension following induction of anesthesia is currently being studied in an ongoing clinical trial at the University of Iowa. (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02416024, contact Kenichi Ueda, MD, kenichi-ueda@uiowa.edu). Induction agents in this study will include 1.5 mg/kg propofol, 2 mcg/kg fentanyl, 100 mg lidocaine, and 0.6 mg/kg rocuronium. Inhaled anesthetic will be sevoflurane at 0.5 MAC with 5L/min of 100% oxygen starting at mask ventilation till 10 minutes after tracheal intubation. Blood pressure will be measured by a brachial cuff prior to induction and every minute after intubation for 10 minutes. If the systolic pressure drops below 90 mmHg or more than 25% from baseline, the patient will be classified in the study as “Hypotensive.” Conversely, if the patient’s systolic blood pressure does not drop below 90 mmHg more than 25% from baseline within 10 minutes of intubation, the patient will be classified as “Not Hypotensive.” In attempt to bring systolic blood pressure up to above 90 mmHg or more than 25% from baseline in “hypotensive” patients, the anesthetic provider will use 100 mcg of phenylephrine (or 5 mg ephedrine if heart rate < 50 bpm) within 10 minutes of intubation. If over 200 mcg of phenylephrine (or 10 mg ephedrine) has been used without a return of the systolic brachial blood pressure >90 mmHg or more than 25% from baseline, the patient will be classified in the study as “Refractory Hypotensive.” Look for the results of this trial to be published in years to come.

Based on the data reviewed in this column, it seems advisable to maintain a patient’s mean arterial pressure at or above a level of 2/3 of their baseline pressure. What if the patient’s baseline blood pressure in their outpatient clinic notes is 120/80 (MAP=93) yet in the pre-operative room on admission to surgery their blood pressure is 150/90 (MAP=110)? This is not an uncommon occurrence, as blood pressure often spikes secondary to the inevitable anxiety which accompanies a pending surgery. Is the anesthesia provider compelled to maintain the blood pressure at 2/3 of 110 = 73 after induction, or compelled to maintain the blood pressure at 2/3 of 93 = 62 after induction? I can find no specific data to answer this question. In my experience, after the administration of 2 mg of intravenous midazolam the hypertensive 150/90 often decreases to the 120/80 (MAP=93) range. With this MAP = 93 value as the baseline blood pressure, 2/3 X 93 = 62 would be the lowest level of MAP I’d feel comfortable with. We’re trained to treat post-induction hypotension with a vasopressor. Typically phenylephrine 100 mcg will increase the pressure to its preinduction level. Some patients require more than one dose of phenylephrine.

Let’s return to the management of your Clinical Case above.

  1. You choose to administer a dose of phenylephrine 100 mcg IV, and the blood pressure returns to 110/70. You maintain general anesthesia depth with the inhaled anesthetic sevoflurane at 0.5 MAC with 5L/min of 100% oxygen.
  2. Five minutes later the blood pressure drops to 85/45 again, and you repeat a dose of phenylephrine 100 mcg IV.
  3. When the surgery begins, the blood pressure increases to 150/90, and you treat by increasing anesthesia depth.
  4. Note that per the Reich data above, the incidence of hypotension increased with higher doses of fentanyl at induction (5-5.0 mcg/kg fentanyl vs. 0-1.5 mcg/kg fentanyl). I’ve found that the lower dose range of fentanyl, specifically zero fentanyl at induction, works very well for many patients. Incremental doses of propofol alone blunt the transient hypertensive response to laryngoscopy and intubation, and the lack of fentanyl leads to less hypotension in the ten minutes post-intubation. Appropriate levels of narcotics are then titrated in when surgery commences and the surgical stimulus increases. Also per Reich’s data, for patients age 50 or older who are ASA III-V, or for patients who present with a baseline pre-operative MAP.

 

The most popular posts for laypeople on The Anesthesia Consultant include:

How Long Will It Take To Wake Up From General Anesthesia?

Why Did Take Me So Long To Wake From General Anesthesia?

Will I Have a Breathing Tube During Anesthesia?

What Are the Common Anesthesia Medications?

How Safe is Anesthesia in the 21st Century?

Will I Be Nauseated After General Anesthesia?

What Are the Anesthesia Risks For Children?

 

The most popular posts for anesthesia professionals on The Anesthesia Consultant  include:

10 Trends for the Future of Anesthesia

Should You Cancel Anesthesia for a Potassium Level of 3.6?

12 Important Things to Know as You Near the End of Your Anesthesia Training

Should You Cancel Surgery For a Blood Pressure = 178/108?

Advice For Passing the Anesthesia Oral Board Exams

What Personal Characteristics are Necessary to Become a Successful Anesthesiologist?

 

Learn more about Rick Novak’s fiction writing at ricknovak.com by clicking on the picture below:  

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WILL YOU HAVE A BREATHING TUBE DOWN YOUR THROAT DURING YOUR SURGERY?

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 52 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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One of the most common questions I hear from patients immediately prior to their surgical anesthetic is, “Will I have a breathing tube down my throat during anesthesia?”

The answer is: “It depends.”

placing anesthesia breathing tube

Let’s answer this question for some common surgeries:

KNEE ARTHROSCOPY: Common knee arthroscopy procedures are meniscectomies and anterior cruciate ligament reconstructions. Anesthetic options include general anesthesia, regional anesthesia, or local anesthesia. Most knee arthroscopies are performed under a general anesthetic, in which the anesthesiologist injects propofol into your intravenous line to make you fall asleep. After you’re asleep, the most common airway tube used for knee arthroscopy is a laryngeal mask airway (LMA). The LMA in inserted into your mouth, behind your tongue and past your uvula, to a depth just superior to your voice box. The majority of patients will breath on their own during surgery. The LMA keeps you from snoring or having significant obstruction of your airway passages. In select patients, including very obese patients, an endotracheal tube (ETT) will be inserted instead of an LMA. The ETT requires the anesthesiologist to look directly into your voice box and insert the tube through and past your vocal cords. With either the LMA or the ETT, you’ll be asleep and will have no awareness of the airway tube except for a sore throat after surgery. A lesser number of knee arthroscopies are performed under a regional anesthetic which does not require a breathing tube. The regional anesthetic options include a blockade of the femoral nerve located in your groin or numbing the entire lower half of your body with a spinal or epidural anesthetic injected into your low back. A small number of knee arthroscopies are done with local anesthesia injected into your knee joint, in combination with intravenous sedative medications into your IV. Why are most knee arthroscopies performed with general anesthesia, which typically requires an airway tube? Because in an anesthesiologist’s hands, an airway tube is a common intervention with an acceptable risk profile. A light general anesthetic is a simpler anesthetic than a femoral nerve block, a spinal, or an epidural anesthetic.

Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA)

Endotracheal Tube (ETT)

NOSE AND THROAT SURGERIES SUCH AS TONSILLECTOMY AND RHINOPLASTY: Almost all nose and throat surgeries require an airway tube, so anesthetic gases and oxygen can be ventilated in and out through your windpipe safely during the time the surgeon is working on these breathing passages.

ABDOMINAL SURGERIES, INCLUDING LAPAROSCOPY: Almost all intra-abdominal surgeries require an airway tube to guarantee adequate ventilation of anesthetic gases and oxygen in and out of your lungs while the surgeon works inside your abdomen.

CHEST SURGERIES AND OPEN HEART SURGERIES: Almost all intra-thoracic surgeries require an airway tube to guarantee adequate ventilation of anesthetic gases and oxygen in and out of your lungs while the surgeon works inside your chest.

TOTAL KNEE REPLACEMENT AND TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT: The majority of total knee and hip replacement surgeries are performed using spinal, epidural and/or nerve block anesthesia anesthesia to block pain to the lower half of the body. The anesthesiologist often chooses to supplement the regional anesthesia with intravenous sedation, or supplement with a general anesthetic which requires an airway tube. Why add sedation or general anesthesia to the regional block anesthesia? It’s simple: most patients have zero interest in being awake while they listen to the surgeon saw through their knee joint or hammer their new total hip into place.

CATARACT SURGERY: Cataract surgery is usually performed using numbing local anesthetic eye drop medications. Patients are wake or mildly sedated, and no airway tube is used.

COLONOSCOPY OR STOMACH ENDOSCOPY: These procedures are performed under intravenous sedation and almost never require an airway tube.

HAND OR FOOT SURGERIES: The anesthesiologist will choose the simplest anesthetic that suffices. Sometimes the choice is local anesthesia, with or without intravenous sedation. Sometimes the choice will be a regional nerve block to numb the extremity, with or without intravenous sedation. Many times the choice will be a general anesthetic, often with an airway tube. An LMA is used more frequently than an ETT.

CESAREAN SECTION: The preferred anesthetic is a spinal or epidural block which leaves the mother awake and alert to bond with her newborn immediately after childbirth. If the Cesarean section is an urgent emergency performed because of maternal bleeding or fetal distress, and there is inadequate time to insert a spinal or epidural local anesthetic into the mother’s lower back, a general anesthetic will be performed. An ETT is always used.

PEDIATRIC SURGERIES: Tonsillectomies are a common procedure and require a breathing tube as described above. Placement of pressure ventilation tubes into a child’s ears requires general anesthetic gases to be delivered via facemask only, and no airway tube is required. Almost all pediatric surgeries require general anesthesia. Infants, toddlers, and children need to be unconscious during surgery, for emotional reasons, because their parents are not present. The majority of pediatric general anesthetics require an airway tube.

CONCLUSIONS: The safe placement of airway tubes for multiple of types of surgeries, in patients varying from newborns to 100-year-olds, is one of the reasons physician anesthesiologists train for many years.

Prior to surgery, some patients are alarmed at the notion of such a breathing tube invading their body. They fear they’ll be awake during the placement of the breathing tube, or that they’ll choke on the breathing tube.

Be reassured that almost every breathing tube is placed after your unconsciousness is assured, and breathing tubes are removed prior to your return to consciousness. A sore throat afterward is common, but be reassured this is a minor complaint that will clear in a few days.

If you have any questions, be sure to discuss them with your own physician anesthesiologist when you meet him or her prior to your surgical procedure.

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THE TOP 10 MOST STRESSFUL JOBS IN AMERICA versus THE TOP 10 MOST STRESSFUL SITUATIONS IN ANESTHESIOLOGY PRACTICE

THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT 2 Comments
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
Physician anesthesiologist at Stanford at Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group
Richard Novak, MD is a Stanford physician board certified in anesthesiology and internal medicine.Dr. Novak is an Adjunct Clinical Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine at Stanford University, the Medical Director at Waverley Surgery Center in Palo Alto, California, and a member of the Associated Anesthesiologists Medical Group in Palo Alto, California.
emailrjnov@yahoo.com
THE ANESTHESIA CONSULTANT
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Anesthesia has been described as 99% boredom and 1% panic. Is anesthesiology one of America’s most stressful jobs? Not according to prominent Internet media sources.

Careercast.com listed the Top 10 Most Stressful Jobs in America in 2015, and those jobs were:

  1. Firefighter
  2. Enlisted Military Personnel
  3. Military General
  4. Airline Pilot
  5. Police Officer
  6. Actor
  7. Broadcaster
  8. Event Coordinator
  9. Photo Journalist
  10. Newspaper Reporter.

ABCnews.go.com listed the Top 10 Most Stressful Jobs in America in 2014, and those jobs were:

  1. Working Parents
  2. Deployed Military Personnel
  3. Police Officer
  4. Teacher
  5. Medical Professionals (The article highlighted surgeons for their need to constantly focus, psychiatrists for their need to intently list